Meat and vegetable protein blends for engineered foods

The meat industry in the United States offers the biggest volume potential for vegetable protein. American Meat Institute reports a 1977 tonnage of 4,377,937,031 pounds of sausage products. Our research with various protein sources is discussed. Emphasis is placed on soy protein products currently available and approved by government agencies. Formulations and requirements for satisfactory products is outlined with economic justifications for soy flour, concentrates and isolates. A thorough discussion of extruded and/or engineered foods is presented showing utilization of mechanically deboned meats, recovered meat proteins from pork and beef rendering, and vegetable proteins in combination with beef and pork. The nutritive values of mechanically deboned chicken and structured soy protein gave PERs over 3.0 with good amino acid balance.     

Processing and product characteristics for textured soy flours,concentrates and isolates

During the last 25 years, the development of processes to provide textural properties in soy proteins has greatly increased the market potential for soy protein products. Many different processes based on soy flour, concentrates and isolates have been developed. They have ranged from products to be used in extension of meats to meat analogs themselves. The real success of new processes is measured by their success in the commercial marketplace. The most successful products have been based on thermoplastic extrusion of soy flour. More recently, second generation products made by the thermoplastic extrusion of soy protein concentrates have been introduced. These products have less flavor, wider variety of functional characteristics and greatly reduced flatulence characteristics compared to textured soy flour products. This paper describes processes used to texturize soy proteins and characteristics of the various products. Product characteristics, functionally and economics are key factors in deciding which product to use in end-product formulations. The wide variety of textured soy proteins available provides a product for each individual need.     

Comparative functionality of soy proteins used in commercial meat food products

The use of soy isolates, concentrates, and texturized flours in meat food products is discussed. Functional characteristics of soy products in relation to their market application are reviewed. Soy isolates find more limited usage in meat food systems (2%) than the concentrates and textured soy flours (8–12%). In weak meat systems containing large amounts of fat (30–45%), the concentrate emulsifier and isolate are more important than the texturized soy flour. In chopped meat systems with 18–25% fat, the textural properties of soy flour (extruded) are more important than the use of an isolate. However, combinations of concentrate emulsifier and texturized flour are used. The method of cooking, i.e. fresh, deep fat-fried, or char-broiled, will affect the usage of soy combinations. In comminuted cooked cured meat food mixes, soy concentrates, and textured flours currently are being used. Nutritional properties are improved by inclusion of available ingredients high in lysine and methionine. Functional measurements of textural properties have been completed using the Instron with a Lee Kramer cell. Both model emulsion systems and finished product results substantiate the accuracy of textural properties in soy-meat mixes using the Instron.     

Soybean protein in human nutrition: An overview

The nutritional value of processed soy protein in human protein nutrition is reviewed on the basis of growth, nitrogen balance and metabolic studies in infants, children, adolescents and adults. When well processed soy products serve as the major or sole source of the protein intake, their protein value approaches or equals that of foods of animal origin, and they are fully capable of meeting the long term essential amino acid and protein needs of children and adults. The significance of the sulfur amino acid content of soy protein for practical human nutrition is also examined. For young children and adults, under conditions of normal usage of soy protein, it is concluded that methionine supplementation of good quality products is unnecessary and possibly undesirable. For feeding of the newborn, the limited data available suggest that supplementation of soy-based formulas with methionine may be beneficial. However, the appropriate level of supplementation is considerably less than that suggested from results obtained in rat feeding studies. At total protein intakes that approximate current dietary protein allowances, well processed soy protein products can replace meat and fish proteins without reducing the utilization of dietary nitrogen in adults, and they can serve as nutritionally valuable protein sources in cereal-based diets for child feeding. The value of long term studies concerned with tolerance to and acceptability of new soy protein products in adults is emphasized, and favorable results with two isolated soy protein products are described. The data indicate that properly processed soy protein foods are well tolerated and of good protein value for humans of all ages.     

Nutritional role of soya protein for humans

This paper reviews the role played by soya protein in human nutrition on the basis of protein quality, energy and protein densities, and availability of trace minerals. The importance of supplementation with methionine was analyzed and it was concluded that there is little nutritional or public health justification for such supplementation when the intake of protein is adequate. The use of refatted soy products has good potential to increase the dietary concentrations of protein and energy, which may be particularly important for children in developing countries and for the elderly or other persons with limited dietary intakes and digestive capacity. Investigations based on chemical balance and on the use of stable isotopes indicate that the iron from soybean is well absorbed by humans, as are inorganic iron and zinc in the presence of soy protein. Soybeans and properly processed soy products have a good protein quality, and when fed in adequate amounts, they can satisfy the total nitrogen and essential amino acid needs of children and adults. Further research related to soy products should be directed mainly toward establishing their overall nutritional value as part of mixed diets or food systems, and not just assess their protein quality. Assessing the protein quality of soy products may be required when major processing modifications are made in the manufacture of soy products for human consumption. INCAP Publication #I-1145.     

The U.K. legislative approach to the use of soy proteins in food

The food and drugs acts applicable within the U.K. provide a framework within which the sale of all foods is controlled. In particular the main clauses place responsibility for safety and avoidance of deception firmly on the manufacturer and seller of the food. The significance of compositional regulations, made under powers contained in the acts, is illustrated by the various meat product regulations and their relevance to the use of soy materials. Food labeling regulations also are discussed. The directions in which the laws may have to be revised to accommodate the introduction of new protein rich foods are outlined and the relevance to soy products is discussed.     

Entwicklung und Bedeutung pflanzlicher Proteine in der menschlichen Ernährung

Development and Importance of Vegetable Protein in Nutrition For several decades it has been a common practise to use concentrated vegetable fat and carbohydrate products in food processing, as well as institutional and house-hold food preparation. This is not true for vegetable protein products. Now, a new list of products are available, which have a wide protein range (50–90% crude protein) and which are ground, textured and spun and which have useful diversified functional properties. These products are finding a growing need and interests in the food industry. For 1975, the total U. S. consumption of soyprotein products reached about 170 000 t with an annual growth rate ranging from 3–25% for the individual types of products. The costs of the common soy protein products range from DM 1.50–5.30/kg crude protein for industrial uses in 1976. Comparing the costs for 100 g crude protein in soy products with other selected food items, which mainly cover the protein requirement, soy products range from 0.18–0.55 DM. This compares to a fraction of the protein costs of other foods. The principle functional properties, resulting from the protein dispersability and enzyme activity are: 1) 3–4 fold capacity to absorb moisture; 2) the emulsifying and stabilizing effects; 3) the improved fat-binding with meat products and 4) the reduced fat absorption with bakery products during frying. According to the “Ernährungsbericht 1976” of the DGE, growing importance has to be paid to an increased consumption of vegetable protein sources for better nutrition.     

Designing vegetable proteins to fit market needs

The needs and wants of the market are discussed as well as the regulatory practices that frequently inhibit the fulfillment of the market’s requirements. The advantages and short comings of the various types of protein ingredients are described, and appeals are made to the soy protein-producing industry to protect the integrity of traditional products by recommending extension of meat and other products in such a manner as to preserve their traditional character. Improved technical service offered to the food processors can bring added assurance to the consumer of a continuing supply of quality traditional products. The soy protein industry must continue the development of their own products so that broader application is possible. The inherent nutritional and functional values of soy proteins are such as to make a new generation of textured products, and improvement in the functional properties of concentrates and isolates a very realistic goal. Compatibilities of soy proteins with other proteins and ingredients are discussed; suggestions are made that the inherent synergism in many of these combinations is an untapped developmental area that will enable us to design protein ingredients for specific applications and thus benefit the consuming public, as well as the food processing industry.     

Economic considerations on the use of vegetable proteins in Danish meat products

Use of vegetable proteins in meat products in Denmark is discussed with special reference to economy. Aspects of price vs. quality also are discussed, and performance criteria in the evaluation of vegetable protein products are proposed. Examples are given of recipe optimization with soy protein products, and finally the market perspectives are outlined. It is emphasized that no conflict is seen between the use of vegetable proteins in meat products and agricultural or consumer interests.     

Soy protein foods in U.S. assistance programs

Soy protein food products occupy an important place in both U.S. overseas and domestic food assistance programs. In the overseas food donation program the products serve as the source of protein for the fortification of conventional processed commodities—wheat flour, corn meal, rolled oats, bulgur, and sorghum grits—and as a major source of protein in several cereal soy products designed for special use as child food supplements. Acceptance of these products has been good and more than 1 billion lb. of soy-fortified foods were distributed in the overseas program during July 1, 1972-June 30, 1973. In domestic food assistance programs, soy protein foods which meet U.S. Department of Agriculture requirements have been introduced into both school lunch and breakfast programs and also are distributed to needy families. Two products, textured soy protein and protein-fortified enriched macaroni, are permitted to meet part of the meat requirement in the Type A school lunch. In the school breakfast program, soy protein is a permitted ingredient in protein-fortified foods such as doughnuts, cake-like baked products, and cereal-fruit products. They were introduced primarily to meet the need for nutritious food items that require no kitchen facilities to prepare and are convenient to serve in schools that lack food service facilities. Specifications for the various food products are presented.     

Vegetable proteins in cooked and/or fermented sausages

Man is the only animal cooking meat for food. Various arts and degrees of heat treatment were devised by the early egyptians, Greeks and Romans; this was often combined with a surprisingly high degree of sophisticated fermentation. From initial meat searing in the Iron Age to modern barbecue pits, electronic conveyers, rotomats, the introduction of steam and controlled smoking, development of curing salts, and the controlled production of meat itself, man created new meat processing technology designed to improve flavor, texture, shelflife, availability, acceptability and economy, thus satisfying the crucial demands of both the consumer and processor. During this time man also discovered the disadvantage of heat, namely the inevitable loss of volume, changes in texture, color and palatability. At the same time, he started using various tubers, cereals and salts to minimize cooking losses. These functional comminuted meat product ingredients, today known as binders and fillers, have traditionally been locally available. They include potatoes, cereals, milk derivatives, hydrocolloids and vegetable proteins. It is estimated that 17,000 tons of various soy proteins were used in 1977 in Europe alone in heat-treated and fermented meat products. Since sausages, fermented and hard salamis and similar ready-to-eat comminuted meat products are an important segment of European convenience meat consumption, this paper concentrates on the technological, nutritional and economical impacts of soy proteins on these products. While in heat-treated meats bacteriological growth is not desired, it is a regulation factor in the production of fermented sausages. In both types of products, soy proteins in their present form as isolates, concentrates, textured, various grits and flours, as well as spun or structured, play an important role in providing the consumer with appealing, nutritional products at acceptable prices. Examples of applications of soy proteins are discussed.     

Soy flour and grits for use in food products

Processing alternatives enable the soybean processor to manufacture soy flour products which vary in fat content, granulation and degree of heat treatment. By controlling these variables, the processor is able to regulate the nutritional value and functional properties of these products. The application of soy flour products is dependent upon their functional properties, nutritional value and low cost. Currently, the major markets for soy flour and grits are in pet foods and animal feeds, cereal based foods and ingredients, meat based foods, and as a substrate for refined protein products such as the textured vegetable proteins, soy protein concentrates, isolates and hydrolysates. These soy protein products are generally marketed as functional and nutritional substitutes for meat, milk and egg protein. For example, soy flour is a functional replacement for milk in many cereal-based foods, e.g., bread, and also enhances the nutritional value of the cereal protein by supplying lysine to the formulation. The United States government has pioneered the development and marketing of protein-enriched, cereal-based foods designed to combat worldwide starvation. The government has directly supported the research and development of corn and wheat-based food substrates supplemented with soy flour, and has purchased over one billion pounds of these products since 1966 for worldwide distribution. One of 21 papers presented at the Symposium, “Oilseed Processors Challenged by World Protein Need,” ISF-AOCS World Congress, Chicago, September 1970.     

Impact of extraction conditions and seed variety on the characteristics of pennycress (Thlaspi arvense) protein: a structure and function approach

As the consumer demand for plant proteins continues to grow, the food industry is seeking novel and sustainable protein sources to incorporate in various food products. Pennycress (Thlaspi arvense), a sustainable cover crop, produces oilseeds high in protein, warranting investigation. Accordingly, protein extraction from pennycress was evaluated under various extraction conditions, using alkaline extraction and salt solubilization coupled with ultrafiltration. Given the superior color and functionality of the salt extracted pennycress protein isolate (PcPI), its production was scaled-up about two hundred folds in a pilot plant. Furthermore, a new pennycress accession bred to have zero erucic acid (0EA) was evaluated to determine the impact of seed variety on protein characteristics. Structural and functional characterization was performed on PcPI and compared to native (nSPI) and commercial (cSPI) soy protein isolates. Salt extracted PcPI had comparable gel strength to cSPI, three times higher solubility under acidic conditions, and ~1.5 times better emulsification capacity. PcPI extracted from 0EA was mildly different in structure and functionality from that extracted from wildtype pennycress, with the slight variation attributed to genetic variance. Finally, the protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) of the salt extracted PcPI, calculated in vivo (0.72) and in vitro (0.87), was superior or comparable to other plant protein sources. This research provided, for the first time, a comprehensive evaluation of different protein extraction protocols to produce a functional PcPI that can compete with soy protein for various food applications, such as acidic beverages, meat and dairy products, and emulsified systems.     

Utilization of vegetable proteins in meats of large cross sectional area

Comminuted meat products such as luncheon meats, sausages, paté, etc, and whole meat cuts such as ham, corned beef, steaks, and roast are two principal forms in which meat is consumed. Soy protein products have been used in comminuted meat products for several years. New developments have made it possible to incorporate isolated soy protein into large pieces of muscle tissue. A brine containing isolated soy protein is injected or massaged into the muscle using cured meat technology. Alternately, the intact muscle pieces can be injected first with brine and then the protein incorporated by massaging or tumbling. This process can be used to increase yield 20–40% over the green weight. Product quality attributes include normal appearance, improved firmness and slicing characteristics over brine-cured hams, combined with less weepage under vacuum packaging.     

Spun-fiber textured products

The process for spinning fibers from soy isolate is described. Fabrication of so called food analogues and extenders containing spun soy fibers is reviewed. The rationale for the use of fibers in food products and ingredients is explored. Nutritional properties, especially protein quality, of the products are discussed. Emphasis is given to the fact that spun-fiber textured products contain a variety of items, such as soy, wheat, oats, egg albumen, yeast, sodium caseinate, and vegetable oils. The relationship of this variety to applied nutrition is discussed.     

Use of vegetable protein in processed seafood products

In comparison to other muscle foods like red meats, utilization of vegetable protein products in seafood is limited, and can be considered to be in its infancy. The opportunities are not predicated entirely on the future. Opportunities exist today, and vegetable protein products such as soy can and will impact on the seafood market. The opportunities for soy protein products in seafood are and will be realized in terms of nutrition, functionality, and economics. The change in price of frozen fish paste caused by the influence of the 200-mile zones was 2 to 2.5 times in one year. In contrast, the price of soy protein products has not changed during the same period. Obviously, this price difference has an important impact on the demand for soy protein products. As the price of fish in Japan has risen, consumers have tended to avoid buying fish products, and there has been a trend toward buying animal products. Consequently, the use of textured soy proteins in these animal protein foods has also increased. Japan has a long and well developed tradition of eating soybean foods, and at the same time, Japan possesses a high level of scientific technology concerned with new soy protein foods. The whole nation, including the consumers, producers, academic societies and the government, is of the consensus that soybeans are a good food source whose consumption should be encouraged and increased. In spite of such favored conditions, utilization of soy protein foods in Japan has not really taken off even after almost 20 years of development. Reasons for the slow expansion of the market are many. However, the definite factor which decisively affects the increased use seems ultimately to be a balance between the quality and price of the products. In Japan the balance would become favorable to soy protein because of the limited fish resources as well as recent advances in the technology of soy protein foods. Several formulations for fish/soy products are presented.     

Soya products in meat,poultry and seafood

The soya protein industry has produced a wide variety of products with specific functionality properties to meet the targeted needs required by the food industry. It is important to recognize that certain of these soya protein products have and perform specific functions in these foods, such as texture forming, gelation, fat and water binding, and emulsification. They contribute to the nutritional and general overall eating quality. Also important is to recognize the limits of application of soya protein technology based on maintaining the traditional quality of the meat, poultry or seafood products. Today, unlike just a few years ago, soya protein products are able to contribute to, not just extend, high-quality meat, poultry and seafood products. The combination of resource efficiency of soya proteins and new technological advances is constantly expanding the long list of applications worldwide. The function of soy protein products in a variety of processed meat, poultry and seafood products is discussed. Paper presented by C.W. Kolar.     

Meat and dairy analogs from vegetable proteins

The enormous pressures for protein food products in the coming decades, brought on by world population increases, will be solved through the extension of traditional animal protein foods with vegetable proteins and through the development of food products based on vegetable proteins alone. Analogs of beef, fish, poultry and other traditional animal protein products, which are based solely on vegetable proteins, are an established food category, and are expected to increase market share. Dairy analogs based on vegetable cow’s milk and dairy desserts. Vegetable forms of cheese and other milk protein products are also expected to increase. Nutritional equivalence of vegetable protein products is fundamental to product design. Protein and fat content must be standardized. Vegetable proteins are blended to reach desirable protein quality. Analogs currently marketed are primarily blends of soy and wheat proteins containing lesser amounts of yeast and egg albumen. The products are fortified with vitamins and minerals to levels present in animal protein foods. Processed meat manufacturing facilities, which exist in most developed countries, can be readily adapted to produce meat analogs. The technology which has been developed to date is based on soy or soy/wheat combinations. The technology can readily be adapted to other vegetable proteins such as rapeseed, cotton-seed, sesame or sunflower. These protein sources, while in abundance in many countries, need process research which can refine them for human use. The vegetable proteins offer the world’s exploding population a virtually untapped resource for its burgeoning food requirements.     

Identification of extrinsic proteins in boneless cooked ham by SDS-PAGE: detection level in model systems

Protein extraction and separation in polyacrylamide slab gel electrophoresis with Laemmli system (SDS-PAGE) were used to establish the detection level of protein raw materials in mixtures with porcine meat in boneless cooked ham. Model systems of boneless cooked ham with soy protein isolates, caseinate, skim powdered milk, bovine plasma, porcine plasma and whey proteins were studied. The quantification level of this method was 0.5% for soy protein isolates, caseinate and bovine plasma and 1.0% for porcine plasma, milk powder and whey proteins in boneless cooked ham. The electrophoretic method proved to be useful to identify some proteinic raw materials in porcine meat products and verify compliance with Argentine legislation. It may be used as a control methodology.