Tunneling in long-wavelength infrared HgCdTe photodiodes

We have generalized the existing expression for the trap-assisted tunneling current to include the effect of linearly varying electric field in the depletion region and self-consistently calculated steady-state trap occupation probability. We find that the magnitude and variation of current with voltage depend critically on these improvements.     

Scalability of dry-etch processing for small unit-cell HgCdTe focal-plane arrays

A combination of mechanical experiments and fabrication of very-long-wavelength infrared (VLWIR) HgCdTe-infrared detectors has been used to investigate the interaction between various unit-cell design and dry-etch process variables on final unit-cell dimensions and detector performance. Etch rate, which determines the process time required to achieve a specified etch depth, was found to be a function of both the trench width opening used to delineate an individual detector element in a focal-plane array (FPA) and the mesa profile observed during etching. Current-voltage (I-V) probe data at 78 K demonstrated the successful fabrication of 30 μm unit-cell, VLWIR-HgCdTe diodes with mesa delineation performed by dry etching. The breakdown performance of these diodes is sensitive to trench width and dry-etch process time.     

Current voltage modeling of current limiting mechanisms in HgCdTe focal plane array photodetectors

An automated iterative nonlinear fitting program has been developed to model current-voltage (I–V) data measured on HgCdTe infrared (IR) detector diodes. This model includes the ideal diode diffusion, generation-recombination, band-to-band tunneling, trap-assisted tunneling (TAT), and avalanche breakdown as potential current limiting mechanisms in an IR detector diode. The modeling presented herein allows one to easily distinguish, and more importantly to quantitatively compare, the amount of influence each current limiting mechanism has on various detectors’ I–V characteristics. Longer cutoff wavelength detectors often exhibit significant current limitations due to tunneling processes. The temperature dependence of these tunneling characteristics is thoroughly investigated for two diodes.     

砷掺HgCdTe长波红外光电二极管阵列的制备与性能

采用砷(As)掺杂HgCdTe材料研制了响应截止波长为12.5 μm,规格为256×1的长波红外光电二极管阵列.实验设计了一种新的pn结测量方法,测量发现砷掺长波HgCdTe材料离子注入形成pn结深度在3.6～5.3 μm之间,而其最大横向尺寸大约是设计尺寸的1.3倍.实验采用一种改进的表面处理工艺制备了砷掺HgCdTe长波红外光电二极管阵列,获得了良好的电学性能,该工艺与常规表面处理工艺相比可以使器件峰值阻抗提高2个量级,而-0.5v偏压下的动态电阻可提高约30倍.研究认为,器件性能提高的原因是由于改进工艺可以有效抑制器件表面漏电流.     

From Long Infrared to Very Long Infrared Wavelength Focal Plane Arrays Made with HgCdTe n + n ?/ p Ion Implantation Technology

This paper aims at studying the feasibility of very long infrared wavelength (VLWIR) (12–18 μm) focal plane arrays using n-on-p planar ion-implanted technology. To explore and analyze the feasibility of such VLWIR detectors, a set of four Cd _x Hg_1−x Te LPE layers with an 18 μ cutoff at 50 K has been processed at Defir (LETI/LIR–Sofradir joint laboratory), using both our “standard” n-on-p process and our improved low dark current process. Several 320 × 256 arrays, 30-μm pitch, have been hybridized on standard Sofradir readout circuits and tested. Small dimension test arrays characterization is also presented. Measured photonic currents with a 20°C black body suggest an internal quantum efficiency above 50%. Typical I(V) curves and thermal evolution of the saturation current are discussed, showing that standard photodiodes remain diffusion limited at low biases for temperatures down to 30 K. Moreover, the dark current gain brought by the improved process is clearly visible for temperatures higher than 40 K. Noise measurements are also discussed showing that a very large majority of detectors appeared background limited under usual illumination and biases. In our opinion, such results demonstrate the feasibility of high-performance complex focal plane arrays in the VLWIR range at medium term.     

Planar p-on-n HgCdTe heterojunction mid-wavelength infrared photodiodes formed using plasma-induced junction isolation

Planar p-on-n HgCdTe heterojunction photodiodes have been fabricated using a plasma-induced type conversion process for device junction isolation. The technique is presented as a fully planar alternative technology to the commonly used mesa isolation structure. The starting material consisted of an indium-doped n-type mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR) HgCdTe absorbing layer that was capped by a 1-μm-thick wider bandgap arsenic-doped p-type layer. Junction-isolated p-on-n diodes were formed by selectively p-to-n type converting the p-type cap layer using a plasma process. Photodiode dark current-voltage measurements were performed as a function of temperature, along with noise and responsivity. The devices have cut-off wavelengths between 4.8 μm and 5.0 μm, exhibit diffusion-limited dark currents down to 145 K, give R₀A values greater than 1 × 10⁷Ω·cm² at 80 K and greater than 1 × 10⁵Ω·cm² at 120 K, and have negligible 1/f noise current at zero applied bias.     

Bake stability of long-wavelength infrared HgCdTe photodiodes

The bake stability was examined for HgCdTe wafers and photodiodes with CdTe surface passivation deposited by thermal evaporation. Electrical and electrooptical measurements were performed on various long-wavelength infrared HgCdTe photodiodes prior to and after a ten-day vacuum bakeout at 80°C, similar to conditions used for preparation of tactical dewar assemblies. It was found that the bakeout process generated additional defects at the CdTe/ HgCdTe interface and degraded photodiode parameters such as zero bias impedance, dark current, and photocurrent. Annealing at 220°C under a Hg vapor pressure following the CdTe deposition suppressed the interface defect generation process during bakeout and stabilized HgCdTe photodiode performance.     

Generation-Recombination Effect in High-Temperature HgCdTe Heterostructure Nonequilibrium Photodiodes

The dark current of near-room-temperature long-wavelength heterojunction photodiodes was studied. The dark current of the devices is much greater than that calculated from the Auger generation mechanisms. A model of trap- assisted tunneling via traps located at dislocation cores is proposed as the mechanism of enhanced thermal generation of charge carriers in reverse-biased diodes. Field-induced reduction of trap activation energies can increase thermal generation and create conditions for tunneling currents. The model qualitatively explains experimental current−voltage characteristics of the diodes assuming a dislocation density of approximately 10⁸ cm⁻² at the graded gap interface between absorber and contact regions of the photodiode.     

Ⅱ类超晶格甚长波红外探测器的发展

由Ⅲ-Ⅴ族半导体材料InAs/GaSb或InAs/Ga1-xInxSb构成的Ⅱ类超晶格(T2SL)光电探测器近年来在理论结构设计及试验器件实现方面进展显著.带隙工程和能带结构工程使得T2SL比碲镉汞材料具有某些优势,特别是很小的窄带隙方面.这些特有的性质,例如较大的有效电子质量、重空穴带和轻空穴带之间的较大间距可以抑制...     

甚长波碲镉汞红外探测器制备研究

报道了碲镉汞甚长波红外焦平面探测器的最新研究进展。采用水平液相外延In掺杂和垂直液相外延Ａs掺杂技术生长了高质量的p on n型双层异质结材料。并通过提高材料质量将双层异质结材料的双晶衍射半峰宽控制在30 arcsec以内。基于台面器件加工、表侧壁钝化以及In柱互连工艺,制备了640×512,25μm碲镉汞甚长波红外焦平面器件。通过进一步优化了材料生长和芯片制备工艺,在65 K的工作温度下,该器件的截止波长为1435 μｍ,有效像元率为9806,平均峰值探测率为809×1010cm·Hz1/2·W-1。     

HgCdTe long-wavelength infrared photovoltaic detectors fabricated using plasma-induced junction formation technology

A long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) HgCdTe photodiode fabrication process has been developed based on reactive ion etching (RIE) plasma-induced p-to-n type conversion for junction formation. The process has been successfully applied to produce devices using both vacancy-doped and gold-doped liquid phase epitaxy (LPE)-grown p-type HgCdTe material with a cut-off wavelength of 10 μm at 77 K. The fabrication procedure is outlined and results are presented on completed devices that indicate the effect of variations in processing parameters. The fabricated devices have been characterized by measurements of the diode dark I-V characteristic over the temperature range 20–200 K, as well as by spectral responsivity measurements. Analysis of the device I-V data, variable area data, and modeling of diode dark current mechanisms indicates that gold-doped material results in higher performing devices compared to vacancy-doped material. Device performance is found to be strongly affected by trap-assisted tunneling currents and surface leakage currents at zero bias. Nonoptimum surface passivation is likely to be the major factor limiting performance at this early stage of device technology development.     

Large VLWIR Hg1−xCdxTe photovoltaic detectors

Very long wavelength infrared (VLWIR; 15 to 17 μm) detectors are required for remote sensing sounding applications. Infrared sounders provide temperature, pressure and moisture profiles of the atmosphere used in weather prediction models that track storms, predict levels of precipitation etc. Traditionally, photoconductive VLWIR (λ_c >15 μm) detectors have been used for sounding applications. However, photoconductive detectors suffer from performance issues, such as non-linearity that is 10X – 100X that of photovoltaic detectors. Radiometric calibration for remote sensing interferometry requires detectors with low non-linearity. Photoconductive detectors also suffer from non-uniform spatial optical response. Advances in molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) growth of mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe) and detector architectures have resulted in high performance detectors fabricated in the 15 μm to 17 μmm spectral range. Recently, VLWIR (λ_c ∼ 17 μm at 78 K) photovoltaic large (1000 μm diameter) detectors have been fabricated and measured at flux values targeting remote sensing interferometry applications. The operating temperature is near 78 K, permitting the use of passive radiators in spacecraft to cool the detectors. Detector non-AR coated quantum efficiency >60% was measured in these large detectors. A linear response was measured, while varying the spot size incident on the 1000 μm detectors. This excellent response uniformity, measured as a function of spot size, implies that low frequency spatial response variations are absent. The 1000 μm diameter, λ_c ∼ 17 μm at 78 K detectors have dark currents ∼160 μA at a −100 mV bias and at 78 K. Interfacing with the low (comparable to the contact and series resistance) junction impedance detectors is not feasible. Therefore a custom pre-amplifier was designed to interface with the large VLWIR detectors operating in reverse bias. A breadboard was fabricated incorporating the custom designed preamplifier interfacing with the 1000 μm diameter VLWIR detectors. Response versus flux measurements were made on the large VLWIR detectors and non-linearity <0.15% was measured at high flux values in the 2.5×10¹⁷ to 3.5×10¹⁷ ph-cm⁻²sec⁻¹ range. This non-linearity is an order of magnitude better than for photoconductive detectors.     

Molecular-beam epitaxial growth of CdSe<Subscript>x</Subscript>Te<Subscript>1−x</Subscript> on Si(211)

We report on the first successful growth of the ternary-alloy CdSe_xTe_1−x(211) on 3-in. Si(211) substrates using molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE). The growth of CdSeTe was performed using a compound CdTe effusion source and an elemental Se effusion source. The alloy composition (x) of the CdSe_xTe_1−x ternary compound was controlled through the Se:CdTe flux ratios. Our results indicated that the crystalline quality of CdSeTe decreases as the alloy composition increases, which is possibly due to an alloy-disordering effect. A similar trend was observed for the CdZnTe ternary-alloy system. However, the alloy-disordering effect in CdSeTe was found to be less severe than that in CdZnTe. We have carried out the growth of CdSeTe on Si at different temperatures. An optimized growth window was established for CdSeTe on Si(211) to achieve high-crystalline-quality CdSeTe/Si layers with 4% Se. The as-grown layers exhibited excellent surface morphology, low surface-defect density (less than 500 cm⁻²), and low x-ray full width at half maximum (FWHM) values near 100 arcsec. Additionally, the CdSeTe/Si layer exhibited excellent lateral uniformity and the best etched-pit density (EPD) value on a 4% CdSeTe, measured to be as low as 1.4 × 10⁵ cm⁻².     

Characterization of HgCdTe MWIR Back-Illuminated Electron-Initiated Avalanche Photodiodes

This article reports new characterization data for large-area (250 μm ×  250 μm) back-illuminated planar n-on-p HgCdTe electron-initiated avalanche photodiodes (e-APDs). These e-APDs were fabricated in p-type HgCdTe films grown by liquid-phase epitaxy (LPE) on CdZnTe substrates. We previously reported that these arrays exhibit gain that increases exponentially with reverse bias voltage, with gain-versus-bias curves that are quite uniform from element to element, and with a maximum gain of 648 at −11.7 V at 160 K for a cutoff wavelength of 4.06 μm. Here we report new data on these planar e-APDs. Data from a third LPE film with a longer cutoff wavelength (4.29 μm at 160 K) supports the exponential dependence of gain on cutoff wavelength, for the same bias voltage, that we reported for the first two films (with cutoffs of 3.54 μm and 4.06 μm at 160 K), in agreement with Beck’s empirical model for gain versus voltage and cutoff wavelength in HgCdTe e-APDs. Our lowest gain-normalized current density at 80 K and zero field-of-view is 0.3 μA/cm² at −10.0 V for a cutoff of 4.23 μm at 80 K. We report data for the temperature dependence of gain over 80 K to 200 K. We report, for the first time, the dependence of measured gain on junction area for widely spaced circular diodes with radii of 20 μm to 175 μm. We interpret the variation of measured gain with junction area in terms of an edge-enhanced electric field, and fit the data with a two-gain model having a lower interior gain and a higher edge gain. We report data for the excess noise factor F(M) near unity for gains up to 150 at 196 K. We describe the abrupt breakdown phenomenon seen in most of our devices at high reverse bias.     

Current mechanisms in VLWIR Hg1−xCdxTe photodiodes

VLWIR (_c∼15 m to 17 m at 78 K) detectors have been characterized as a function of temperature to determine the dominant current mechanisms impacting detector performance. I_d−V_d curves indicate that VLWIR detectors are diffusion limited in reverse and near zero bias voltages down to temperatures in the 40 K range. At 30 K the detectors are limited by tunneling currents in reverse bias. Since the detectors are diffusion limited near zero bias down to 40 K, the R₀A_imp versus temperature data represents the diffusion current performance of the detector as a function of temperature. The detector spectral response measurement and active layer thickness are utilized to calculate the HgCdTe layer x value and the optical activation energy E_{a optical}. The activation energy, E_{a electrical}, obtained from the measured diffusion limited R₀A_imp versus temperature data is not equal to the activation energy, E_{a optical}, obtained from the spectral response measurement for all x values measured. E_{a electrical}=^*E_{a optical}, where ranges between 0.64 and 1.0 For cutoff wavelengths in the 9 m at 78 K, E_{a electrical}=E_{a optical}. E_{a electrical}=0.65^* E_{a optical} have been measured for_c=17 m at 78 K detectors. As the band gap energy decreases to values in the range of 70 meV and lower, it is reasonable to expect a more dominant role of band tailing effects on the transport properties of the material system. In such a picture, one would expect the optical band gap to be unmodified, whereas the intrinsic concentration could be enhanced from its value for the ideal semiconductor. Such a picture could explain the observed behavior. Further probing experiments and modeling efforts will help clarify the physics of this behavior.     

Comparison of normal and inverted band structure HgTe/CdTe superlattices for very long wavelength infrared detectors

The type III band alignment of HgTe/CdTe superlattices leads to the interesting possibility of achieving very long wavelength infrared (VLWIR) (15 μm and longer) cutoff wavelengths with either normal (HgTe layer thickness less than about 70 ? for CdTe layer thickness of 50 ?) or inverted (HgTe thickness greater than about 70 ?) band structures. The inverted band structure superlattices promise even greater cutoff wavelength control than the normal band structure ones. However, the electronic band gaps of inverted band structure superlattices are substantially less than their optical band gaps, leading to large thermal carrier concentrations even at temperature as low as 40 K. These high carrier concentrations in turn give rise to more rapid Auger recombination than normal band structure superlattices with the same cutoff wavelengths. We conclude that the highest performance is expected from VLWIR HgTe/CdTe superlattice-based detectors with normal band structure absorber layers.