Consequences of surprising reward omissions.

A surprising reward omission (SRO) occurs when an appetitive reinforcer is not presented (or it is reduced in magnitude or quality) even though there are signals for its impending presentation. Evidence supporting the hypothesis that SROs produce an aversive emotional reaction with physiological and behavioral consequences is reviewed. SROs are followed by pituitary-adrenal activation; changes in immune function; odor emissions in rodents; distress vocalizations in rodents and primates; and increases in locomotion, aggressive behavior, drinking, and eating. SROs can support the acquisition of new escape responses and invigorate previously acquired responses. The review identifies common aspects of these phenomena and areas in which more research is needed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The surprising simplicity of sensory metrics.

"Is there a single, simple, pervasive psychophysical law? Unlikely as it may seem, there appears to be such a law. Its form is a power function, and not the logarithmic relation that is almost universally cited in textbooks… . The psychophysical power law relating the psychological magnitude to the physical stimulus can be written[Equation omitted]where k is a constant determined by the choice of units. The exponent n varies with the modality, and also with such parameters as adaptation and contrast." Major sections are: Evidence for the Power Law, Cross-Modality Validations, Difficulties and Impediments, Reasons for Curvature in the Loudness Function, Pertubations, and Parametric Explorations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The actor-observer asymmetry in attribution: A (surprising) meta-analysis.

The actor-observer hypothesis (E. E. Jones & R. E. Nisbett, 1971) states that people tend to explain their own behavior with situation causes and other people's behavior with person causes. Widely known in psychology, this asymmetry has been described as robust, firmly established, and pervasive. However, a meta-analysis on 173 published studies revealed average effect sizes from d = -0.016 to d = 0.095. A moderator analysis showed that the asymmetry held only when the actor was portrayed as highly idiosyncratic, when hypothetical events were explained, when actor and observer were intimates, or when free-response explanations were coded. In addition, the asymmetry held for negative events, but a reverse asymmetry held for positive events. This valence effect may indicate a self-serving pattern in attribution, but across valence, no actor-observer asymmetry exists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The surprising potency of implicit egotism: A reply to Simonsohn.

This article addresses Simonsohn's (2011) critique of field studies of implicit egotism. We argue that Simonsohn provides no compelling theoretical reason to believe that implicit egotism should be valid only in the laboratory. In addition, we argue that a careful analysis of most of Simonsohn's studies of implicit egotism shows that they provide little or no power to reveal real effects of implicit egotism. We conclude that it is more constructive to try to identify theoretically derived moderators of implicit egotism than to try to document that it is always spurious in the field. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The bizarreness effect: It's not surprising, it's complex.

Higher recall of bizarre images relative to common images (the bizarreness effect) is consistently found when bizarreness is varied as a within-subject (mixed-list) variable. In Experiment 1, mixed lists, rather than the smaller number of bizarre sentences typically used in such lists, determined the occurrence of the bizarreness effect. Contrary to predictions from expectation-violation theory, Experiments 2 and 3 showed that manipulations designed to augment or attenuate surprise reactions to bizarre sentences had little impact on the bizarreness effect. Experiments 4 and 5 indicated that mixing affected the degree to which participants differentially encoded order information for bizarre and common items. A new account of the bizarreness effect is presented that combines considerations of distinctiveness with the differential use of order information across bizarre and common items. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the surprising salience of curvature in grouping by proximity.

The authors conducted 3 experiments to explore the roles of curvature, density, and relative proximity in the perceptual organization of ambiguous dot patterns. To this end, they developed a new family of regular dot patterns that tend to be perceptually grouped into parallel contours, dot-sampled structured grids (DSGs). DSGs are similar to the dot lattices used to study grouping by proximity, except that only one of the potential organizations is rectilinear; the others are curvilinear. The authors used the method of M. Kubovy and J. Wagemans (1995) to study grouping by proximity in DSGs. They found that in the competition between the most likely organizations, one rectilinear and the other curvilinear, the latter is more salient. This phenomenon cannot be explained by contemporary accounts of grouping by proximity or contour integration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The surprising complexity of peroxisome biogenesis

Peroxisomes are small organelles with a single boundary membrane. All of their matrix proteins are nuclear-encoded, synthesized on free ribosomes in the cytosol, and post-translationally transported into the organelle. This may sound familiar, but in fact, peroxisome biogenesis is proving to be surprisingly unique. First, there are several classes of plant peroxisomes, each specialized for a different metabolic function and sequestering specific matrix enzymes. Second, although the mechanisms of peroxisomal protein import are conserved between the classes, multiple pathways of protein targeting and translocation have been defined. At least two different types of targeting signals direct proteins to the peroxisome matrix. The most common peroxisomal targeting signal is a tripeptide limited to the carboxyl terminus of the protein. Some peroxisomal proteins possess an amino-terminal signal which may be cleaved after import. Each targeting signal interacts with a different cytosolic receptor; other cytosolic factors or chaperones may also form a complex with the peroxisomal protein before it docks on the membrane. Peroxisomes have the unusual capacity to import proteins that are fully folded or assembled into oligomers. Although at least 20 proteins (mostly peroxins) are required for peroxisome biogenesis, the role of only a few of these have been determined. Future efforts will be directed towards an understanding of how these proteins interact and contribute to the complex process of protein import into peroxisomes.     

Retroactive interference effects of surprising reward omission on serial spatial memory.

Reward omission was used to produce retroactive interference in a serial delayed-alternation task. Rats were given forced choices in 3 T mazes presented in succession followed by free choices in which the alternate arm in each maze was rewarded. Nonreward during the delay between forced- and free-choice runs produced a decrement in performance (i.e., retroactive interference) in comparison to reward during the delay. Interference in retention of the first maze in a list occurred when the second maze contained surprising reward or omission (i.e., an outcome contrary to previous training in that maze) in comparison to expected reward or omission. In addition to producing retroactive interference, omission sometimes increased alternation in the maze in which it occurred. These results support a differential rehearsal hypothesis of spatial memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The twelve steps. A pathway to recovery

Alcoholics Anonymous and its 12 Steps and 12 Traditions have arisen out of the experiences of recovery of alcoholics. It offers an important treatment option to the clinician who sees destructive compulsive disease in his or her practice. Despite their nonscientific, nonrational approach, AA and other 12-step programs have evolved to offer a set of attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that can facilitate change in this group of patients. AA is the forerunner of the others and offers as its most important characteristics an unconditional acceptance of the patient's alcoholism, an unshaken belief in the concept of alcoholism as a disease, and support to foster a healthy dependence in the alcoholic. The recovery of an alcoholic involves a fairly long initial stage in which denial about alcoholism is broken down with slow and halting identity change. This characteristic underscores the primitive level of ego development in the alcoholic and the need for much continuing support, nurturance, and tolerance. Clinicians can be an important part of this support network by working with AA and other 12-step groups to help break down denial in the patient and direct individuals to the appropriate program. By allying themselves with this method and groups, clinicians will be making powerful statements about their beliefs and attitudes toward these destructive illnesses.     

Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings.

Secondary analyses of Revised NEO Personality inventory data from 26 cultures (N =23,031) suggest that gender differences are small relative to individual variation within genders; differences are replicated across cultures for both college-age and adult samples, and differences are broadly consistent with gender stereotypes: Women reported themselves to be higher in Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth, and Openness to Feelings, whereas men were higher in Assertiveness and Openness to Ideas. Contrary to predictions from evolutionary theory, the magnitude of gender differences varied across cultures. Contrary to predictions from the social role model, gender differences were most pronounced in European and American cultures in which traditional sex roles are minimized. Possible explanations for this surprising finding are discussed, including the attribution of masculine and feminine behaviors to roles rather than traits in traditional cultures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

One-at-a-time versus grouped presentation of mug book pictures: Some surprising results.

Eyewitnesses to a simulated crime attempted to identify the perpetrator from a computerized mug book. The 208 mug book pictures were presented either 1 mug shot per page or in groups of 12 mug shots per page. Half of the mug books were arranged by similarity to the perpetrator as determined by a facial recognition algorithm, and half were randomly arranged. In contrast to past findings with photospreads, false-positive identifications were significantly higher using the one-at-a-time procedure than the grouped procedure. Results suggest that the best practice for mug books may be the use of groups of pictures per page rather than the one-at-a-time procedure long advocated by experts for use in lineups and photospreads. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Thalidomide responsive chronic pulmonary GVHD

A 29-year-old male underwent allogeneic bone marrow transplantation for progressive multiple myeloma. His post-transplant course was complicated by severe chronic pulmonary graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) resistant to cyclosporin A, corticosteroids and azathioprine. The introduction of thalidomide resulted in a dramatic improvement in his lung function which has been maintained even after cessation of thalidomide. He remains well 40 months after transplantation.     

A retrieval cue for extinction attenuates spontaneous recovery.

Four experiments with rats in an appetitive conditioned magazine entry preparation examined spontaneous recovery after extinction. Spontaneous recovery was obtained 6 days but not 5 hrs following extinction; recovery depended on the passage of time but not on the removal of a cue that was featured in extinction or on the reintroduction of early-session cues. A cue featured in extinction attenuated recovery when presented on the test. The attenuation effect depended on the cue's correlation with extinction; a cue featured in conditioning did not attenuate recovery. The extinction cue did not evoke responding on its own, suggesting that it was not a conditioned excitor. Retardation tests and a summation test did not reveal that it was a conditioned inhibitor. The cue might work by retrieving a memory of extinction. Spontaneous recovery thus occurs because the S fails to retrieve an extinction memory. Other accounts of spontaneous recovery are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Another look at the effect of a surprising intervening event on negative priming.

Tipper et al. (1991) reported that negative priming is eliminated when a low-probability event separates presentation of the prime display from the probe display. This finding is perfectly consistent with at least three of the major accounts of negative priming. However, each of these accounts can reasonably be argued to make different predictions regarding the effect of a surprising intervening event on attended repetition effects. The purpose of the experiment reported here was to determine which of these three predictions was correct. The results obtained were consistent with none of the three predictions. The low-probability intervening event did eliminate negative priming, but did so by slowing performance in the baseline condition relative to all other conditions. The results are discussed with respect to the role of surprise in responding to novel events. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Thalidomide analogs and PDE4 inhibition

N-Phthaloyl 3-amino-3-arylpropionic acid analogs of thalidomide that are potent inhibitors of tumor necrosis factor-alpha are reported. These compounds were found to be potent inhibitors of phosphodiesterase 4.     

Common themes and surprising differences in small G-proteins

In Costa Rica, an annual outbreak of infant diarrheal disease (December and January) was reported since 1976, and rotavirus was incriminated later as the main etiological agent (1976-1981). Apparently the disease has not been systematically studied in Costa Rica after 1981. For that reason the occurrence of the outbreak was retrospectively documented for 1993-1995 and etiology was studied in 48 children treated for diarrhea at the Nacional Children Hospital (capital city of San Jose) during December, 1994 and January, 1995. Rotavirus (33%) and coronavirus (27%) were the main agents. To our knowledge, this is the first time that these viruses are incriminated in an outbreak of diarrhea.     

Identity and recovery.

Examines processes involved in successful recovery from addiction through the lens of identity theory and explores the identity processes involved in 12-step programs, psychotherapy with substance abusers, and religious drug-treatment programs. P. Biernacki (1986) found 3 paths that the addict followed in becoming a nonaddict: identity reversion, identity extension, and identity emergence. One part of 12-step programs is the ritual identification of each member in terms of addiction. The individual in such programs is involved in restructuring his or her identity hierarchy. This restructuring also occurs in religious programs, such as those offered by the Black Muslims for heroin addicts. Identity theory can help reveal commonalities in seemingly disparate treatments and be useful in creating alternative approaches. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Well, slap my thigh: Expression of surprise facilitates memory of surprising material.

Two studies examined the general prediction that one's emotional expression should facilitate memory for material that matches the expression. The authors focused on specific facial expressions of surprise. In the first study, participants who were mimicking a surprised expression showed better recall for the surprising words and worse recall for neutral words, relative to those who were mimicking a neutral expression. Study 2 replicated the results of Study 1, showing that participants who mimicked a surprised expression recalled more words spoken in a surprising manner compared with those that sounded neutral or sad. Conversely, participants who mimicked sad facial expressions showed greater recall for sad than neutral or surprising words. The results provide evidence of the importance of matching the emotional valence of the recall content to the facial expression of the recaller during the memorization period. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)