Tunneling in fault zones, Tuzla tunnel, Turkey

The Tuzla tunnel was excavated mainly in fault zones, shale and limestones using the conventional and shielded tunnel boring machine (TBM) methods. Fault zones in shales are brecciated and clayey, while those in limestones are of blocky structure. The rock mass rating, rock mass classification and support systems proposed for fault zones in Tuzla tunnel are insufficient for explaining the deformation and failure mechanisms encountered in the tunnel. In addition, dyke exposures, the fault-collapsed karstic system and groundwater also caused some problems during the excavation of the tunnel. The most important event relevant to fault zones in the Tuzla tunnel was the selection of a TBM. Before the excavation of the tunnel, the rock was determined to be of poor to fair quality. Therefore, tunneling with a TBM in rock of poor to fair quality was thought to be economic. However, during the excavation, fault zones with poor to very poor rock characteristics were encountered along an area comprising 70% of the tunnel length. The fault zones caused jamming of the TBM cutter and deviation from the tunnel alignment. In this respect, tunneling with the TBM method was quite problematic. Geotechnical problems encountered in the fault zones required special measures to be taken in the tunnel. With these measures, excavation and supporting of the tunnel were completed successfully by transforming heterogeneous conditions in the fault zones to homogeneous conditions in the tunnel impact area.     

Evaluating landslide deposits along the Tsurukawa fault zone, Japan, using magnetic susceptibility

 This paper describes the results of in-situ measurements of magnetic susceptibility in landslide deposits along the Tsurukawa fault zone in central Japan. The measured magnetic susceptibility values range from 0.4 to 9.6×10^–3 (in SI) and correspond to the proportions of the two component materials, weathered volcanic ash and faulted rock fragments. The study shows that landslide deposits along the Tsurukawa fault zone are composed of varying proportions of weathered volcanic ash. The results contrast with some general assumptions concerning landslides along fault zones in Japan. Received: 16 April 1999 · Accepted: 10 August 1999     

The plastic zones and displacements around underground openings in rock masses containing a fault

Faults are the commonly encountered large geological discontinuities in hard rock masses, most severe underground structure instability is found to be closely associated with the faults presence nearby. The parametric study carried out in this paper using numerical method (UDEC) has identified some fault parameters to be really critical for the underground structure stability. These fault parameters are fault dips, fault shear strength and fault locations relative to the underground structure. This numerical investigation revealed that faults affect the stability of underground structure by the tendency of increasing the plastic zones, displacements and causing both asymmetrically distributed in the rock masses adjacent to the excavation. The relationship of the induced plastic zones, maximum displacements varying with these fault parameters was established. The distribution of plastic zone and displacement was graphically presented and the mechanisms such effects were discussed. These results offer a guideline in support design.     

深部岩体断层滞后突水多场信息监测预警研究

断层滞后突水由于其特有的隐蔽性及滞后性特征,突水灾害防治难度较大。针对王楼煤矿断层滞后突水防治工程,开展深部岩体多场信息监测预警研究。深入分析地下水来源及导水通道,在此基础上划分采动过程中断层滞后突水不同阶段,结合隔水关键层理论及物探结果,确定监测预警时间域与空间域,划分温度场、渗压场监测阈值,建立监测预警判识准则;串联传感器组合成监测单元,采用返浆工艺对钻孔分段封堵,实现传感器精确高效安装,通过煤矿安全光纤监测系统实现井上在线监测预警。监测预警结果表明,断层隔水煤柱有效控制断层内裂隙扩展,减弱了断层破碎带导水特性,依据深部岩体监测预警判识准则,工作面开采过程中预警等级为I级,可实现安全开采。研究成果对类似工程具有一定的借鉴意义。     

Hydraulische Charakterisierung von Störungskernzonen in kristallinen Festgesteinen am Beispiel der Talhof-Störung (Ostalpen)

The hydrogeological assessment of a rock mass can be significantly influenced by fault zones acting either as conduits, barriers, or a combined conduit-barrier system. At the Talhof-fault (Semmering-Rax, Austria) the internal structure of a core zone with respect to the hydraulic properties was investigated and compared to results of packer tests. The fault rocks are built up by cataclasites and cacirites with a planar fabric parallel to the fault zone boundaries. Samples were taken with steel pipes in three orientations with reference to a kinematic coordinate system along a scan line. The samples were analysed with respect to grain size distribution, mineralogical composition and hydraulic conductivity. The hydraulic conductivity was determined in the laboratory with tri-axial penetration cells resulting in values ranging from 1,7?10^?7 m/s to 4,2?10^?11 m/s. The analyses suggest a homogeneous and anisotropic hydraulic behaviour of the core zone despite its heterogeneous, fine layered internal structure. The hydraulic conductivity parallel to the fault plane is two orders of magnitude higher than normal to the fault plane. The results correspond well with data from packer tests also from fault rocks of the Talhof fault system and the same tectonic units, giving additional information about the fault domains within the test intervals.     

Damage observation and assessment of the Longxi tunnel during the Wenchuan earthquake

The Longxi tunnel was one of the most damaged tunnels during the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in China. What makes the case interesting is that the tunnel crosses a fault zone. Damage from small to heavy cracking was observed both at the portal and inside the tunnel, while sections close to the fault completely collapsed. A full three-dimensional dynamic finite element model of the tunnel and rock system is used to assess the seismic damage observed in the tunnel and to evaluate the influence of the longitudinal and vertical motions on the seismic response. A comparison between the numerical predictions and the damage reported shows a good agreement. The results indicate that the longitudinal earthquake motion has a significant effect on the response of the tunnel structure and should be considered for the structural design of tunnels in seismic zones. In contrast, the vertical seismic motions can generally be neglected.     

Probabilistic simulations of TBM tunnelling in highly fractured and faulted rocks

Despite the potential excellent performance of TBMs in favourable ground conditions, the presence of fault zones or heavily jointed rocks represents important geological hazards encountered during tunnel excavation. The effects of these challenging environments on the final tunnel construction time and costs can be investigated through a specific computer code: the Decision Aids for Tunnelling (DAT). In this framework the DAT simulate the tunnel excavation in several geological profiles, where changing ground scenarios are described in terms of different “fault zone” classes (from highly fractured rocks, to faulted and crushed material). For each class a certain reduction of the TBM advance rate is specified based on real data analyses. Although the great uncertainty, the results give a reliable estimation of the effect of degrading rock mass conditions on the tunnelling performance. Finally, a real case-study has been simulated by DAT in order to validate the use of the “fault zone” classes (and the relative advance rate reductions) in the estimation of the final time of tunnel construction. The predicted time values prove to be very close to the ones recorded on the field, confirming the importance of a more detailed and comprehensive characterisation of difficult ground conditions such as fault and highly fractured zones.     

大光包滑坡滑带岩体碎裂特征及其形成机制研究

 大光包滑坡是“5•12”汶川地震触发的最大规模滑坡,滑坡南侧暴露长约1.8 km顺层滑带,其岩体高度碎裂,引起广泛关注,6 a来对此开展了持续研究。在前期工作基础上(工程地质测绘、坑槽探及浅孔钻探(钻孔声波)等),对滑带岩体的碎裂特征进行了充分的揭露和系统的描述,结果表明,滑带发育的地质基础是滑前坡体内部发育的层间剪切错动带。强震过程中,由于靠近发震断层的强烈垂向地震动,从而导致坡体沿相对软弱的层间错动带分离,并产生垂向振冲或夯击效应,导致层间错动带的进一步碎裂化。对滑带的细观分析表明,这种强震滑带碎裂化现象不仅存在,而且还表现出伴随碎裂过程的扩容效应。采用物理模拟和PFC数值模拟,进一步验证了强震过程中滑带的碎裂和扩容过程,揭示其产生的内在机制。研究表明,滑带岩体碎裂化及扩容现象具有特殊的工程地质和岩体力学意义：一方面滑带岩体的进一步碎裂、细粒化从物理上降低了滑带的摩阻力;另一方面,也是更为重要的是,由于滑带的夯击扩容,地下水将强力挤入扩容空间,从而可能激发水击作用机制,导致孔隙水压力激增,滑带抗剪能力急剧降低,从而促使滑坡骤然启动,产生高速滑动。     

断层破碎带在渗流作用下应力特征及控制

采用瞬变电磁仪对回风巷穿越断层破碎带的现场水文情况进行探测,获取区域地下水在巷道两帮集聚导致低阻异常区存在的水文特征。建立了回风巷赋水断层三维流固耦合力学模型,模拟分析了断层破碎带在动压及渗流作用下的应力分布及变形特征。研究结果表明:孔隙水压力集中区和巷道两帮压应力集中区具有一致性,随着与断层距离的减小,双场集中区中区由两帮向顶角处转移;回风巷围岩变形失稳概括为3个阶段:即,两帮压密顶底板产生张拉裂隙阶段;地下水向巷道渗透及围岩软化阶段;围岩变形持续增大阶段。为控制回风巷进一步变形,提出了对两帮及底板进行注浆加固的方案。     

Evaluation of high local groundwater inflow to a rock tunnel by characterization of geological features

High local groundwater flow into rock tunnels is a technical and environmental problem for underground constructions. Geological features such as fault zones, open fractures and dykes can be the source of very high local inflows. However, prediction of possible groundwater inflow from these features using analytical and numerical tools often failed due to given hydrogeological assumptions and simplification of these heterogeneous media. In fact, the characteristics of geological features are not often detected by normal exploratory methods and missed from geological models. In order to identify factors that affect inflows from the geological features, a detailed investigation has been carried out at a tunnel excavated to supply potable water to the city of Semnan in Iran. The tunnel passes through formations of Cambrian age with thin and thickly laminated limestone, sandstone, shale and siltstone, which thrust on tuff Formation of Tertiary age by a main thrust fault. It was found out that:

(1)

High local inflows (from 20 up to 750 l/s) come from five geological features and much of tunnel is dry or has less inflow.

(2)

Maximum inflow occurs in an open fracture with amount of 750 l/s.

(3)

Faults have different hydraulic effect; they may act as conduits, barriers or combined conduit-barrier systems.

(4)

Dykes are generally barriers along which a large volume of water can be stored.

(5)

Evaluation of high local groundwater inflow to rock tunnels based on characterization of geological features is more reliable compared to available analytical and empirical estimation.

     

大跨度地下洞室拱顶稳定性及支护措施研究

拟建的金沙江下游一水电站引水发电系统地下洞室群规模巨大且布置复杂,其圆筒型阻抗式调压井高度达100 m,直径达50 m,洞室在同类工程中罕见,拱顶稳定及支护措施问题突出。针对复杂地质条件下,尾调顶拱围岩潜在的应力型破坏和结构面导致的变形与坍塌两类不同性质的问题,采用工程地质分析与三维数值模拟3DEC等相结合的方法,深入探讨圆筒形尾调室围岩应力集中范围、程度和高应力破坏风险;说明软弱层间错动带对围岩变形稳定影响及其安全性。研究表明：圆筒形尾调室总体受力特征良好,拱顶应力集中水平(30～44 MPa)相对不高,高应力破坏问题不突出;但层间错动带对拱顶稳定影响明显,沿层间错动带的错动变形较大且NNE向浅层7 m范围发生剪切屈服。采用系统支护与混凝土置换的加强支护措施后,可以明显减小层间带的错动变形,提高层间带的安全储备。     

隧道穿越断层破碎带震害机理研究

首先对汶川“5.12”等各次大地震中跨越断层破碎带隧道震害进行了资料调研,然后通过振动台模型试验及数值计算对跨断层破碎带隧道的动力响应进行了研究,研究内容主要包括围岩与隧道结构的加速度响应特性、地层变形及衬砌结构内力分布规律等。分析结果表明：震害调研结果、振动台模型试验和数值模拟结果有较好的吻合性,穿越断层破碎带隧道在地震中易于产生破坏;隧道断层带段围岩有较大的加速度响应特性,加速度响应在断层接触段不连续;地震过程中断层带段隧道结构对地层具有明显的追随性和依赖性;断层带隧道错动破坏主要由断层带隧道围岩与较好段围岩位移不同步性而造成的位移差值引起,且位移差值与断层带和隧道较好围岩类型有关;隧道断层破碎带段与较好围岩段衬砌结构横断面具有基本相同的内力分布规律,衬砌内力在共轭45°方向最大,但断层破碎带段衬砌具有最大的内力峰值,更易于在地震过程中产生破坏等。以上成果对于合理认识跨越断层破碎带隧道的地震响应特征具有重要意义,可为隧道实际工程设计和施工的抗震设防提供宝贵的基础资料。     

Geophysical investigations for groundwater in a hard rock terrain,Salem district,Tamil Nadu,India

The main aim of a geophysical investigation in a hard rock region is to solve different hydrogeological problems like depth of water table, basement rock, thickness of weathered zone/formation, structural and stratigraphic conditions relevant to groundwater conditions, and permeability of aquifers. A total of 54 vertical electrode soundings were carried out by Schlumberger electrode arrangement to signify complete lithology of the study area and interpretation was carried out by using curve matching techniques. From the study, 65 % of area is dominated by ‘A’ type curve indicating increasing resistivity with depth and 17 % by ‘K’ type representing a high-resistivity layer sandwiched between two low-resistivity layers. Four layer cases were also noted in 12 % of the study area indicating gradation between the weathered and fractured layers as a semi-weathered zone. Greater thickness has been identified in the weathered zone at the contact of peninsular gneiss and charnockite regions. The maximum, minimum, mean, and arithmetic mean were plotted and identified higher background resistivity values in charnockite. The overlay of maximum and minimum curves for different layers signifies variation of weathering intensity with depth or the presence of weaker zones. In general, lithology plays a significant control over weathering of rocks and groundwater potential.     

广西六安金矿地质特征与控矿因素

六安金矿位于广西大瑶山金成矿带中部,矿区出露地层主要为寒武系,主要赋矿层位为寒武系小内冲组和黄洞口组浅变质细碎屑沉积岩。矿化带受北东向和北西西向断裂控制,并产于次级断层及层间破碎带中。该矿区的矿石属于贫金属硫化物的破碎带蚀变岩型金矿石。矿石中金主要以裸露与半裸露自然金的状态存在。近矿围岩蚀变有硅化、黄铁矿化、绢云母化、绿泥石化和褐铁矿化等,沿断层破碎带及其旁侧发育。六安金矿控矿因素可归纳为构造因素、地层因素、岩浆岩因素和区域变质作用因素。大瑶山地区金矿化类型丰富多样,可归为一个成矿系列。     

Eine „typische“ hydrogeologische Systembeschreibung für den Buntsandstein

On the site of a former ammunition factory in Hessisch-Lichtenau/Hirschhagen in northern Hesse, a large number of boreholes and groundwater monitoring wells were installed as part of a remediation and containment plan. Hydraulic testing over a period of 20 years has significantly improved the understanding of the hydrogeological system. The alternating sandstone, siltstone and claystone formations of the Middle Buntsandstein at the site constitute a succession of aquifers, semi-pervious layers and aquicludes. The subsurface is fractured by step faults and is also permeated by tectonic faults and fissures. This results in a heterogeneous, anisotropic system in which water circulates primarily through permeable fault zones. The aquifer consists of three different zones that are connected through preferential pathways along fault lines. The Upper Zone (Hirschhagen) and the Intermediate Zone are perched aquifers that enable groundwater seepage to lower aquifers. In all three zones, preferential flow paths were observed along north-south striking fault lines.     

大瑶山隧道九号断层的特性与工程对策

本文论述了宽达465m的大断层的地质构造、岩体结构、地下水及围岩变形等特性,并介绍了为安全顺利通过断层所采取的工程措施。     

侵入接触带高密度电阻率法低阻异常分析

中国散裂中子源（CSNS）项目可行性工程地质勘察阶段,在场地部分区域发现了大范围低阻带异常现象,通过分析场址工程地质条件,认为主要与花岗岩和变质岩的接触带有关,推测低阻是由侵入接触带破碎、富水导致。随后工程地质初步勘察阶段完成的钻探、超声波测井资料表明：接触带并没有富水迹象,而高密度电法低阻异常主要是由花岗岩侵入接触带岩体中富含的黄铁矿（FeS2）所致。     

Discrete element analysis of hydro-mechanical behavior of a pilot underground crude oil storage facility in granite in China

The hydro-mechanical behavior of a pilot underground crude oil storage facility in granite in China is analyzed using Discrete Element Method (DEM). Characterization of hydro-mechanical coupling behavior of rock mass was performed using geological investigation, laboratory test, field monitoring and case study. Geological investigations were performed to obtain the geometrical properties of joints. Direct shear tests were performed to obtain the mechanical behavior of joints. A case study was performed to obtain the hydro-mechanical parameters of rock mass around the facility. Discrete element method was employed to assess the hydro-mechanical behavior of the facility. The groundwater pressure distribution and flow rate of the facility under different water curtain pressures were obtained. The groundwater inflow, deformation and stability of the caverns were obtained through the numerical simulations. It was found that the water seal property could not maintain if there is no water curtain system for the facility. The groundwater flow rate increases with the water curtain pressure. Both groundwater flow rate and crown settlement from this study are comparable to those from field measurements. However, the simulated flow rate and crown settlement are less than those predicted using empirical equations, due to the interaction between neighboring caverns and the effect of groundwater table dropdown.     

滇中引水工程香炉山隧洞地应力特征及其活动构造响应

滇中引水工程香炉山隧洞埋深大、距离长且处于复杂的构造地质环境中。为查明其地应力分布特征,统计分析了隧洞沿线10个钻孔的水压致裂法地应力测试成果。3个主应力关系主要表现为SH>SV>Sh,反映了隧洞沿线以走滑性质为主的构造特征。工程区浅部地层的应力大小主要受地层岩性与断裂带影响。一方面坚硬岩体的水平主应力明显大于软质岩体;另一方面断裂带的发育致使隧洞沿线的应力水平相对较低,同时断裂带局部区间力学性质的差异导致浅部地层水平主应力呈现出较大离散性。香炉山隧洞最大水平主应力的测试方向主要分布在NNE-NEE向,与隧洞沿线一系列全新世活动断裂走向及区域构造主压应力方向趋于一致,响应了研究区震源机制解特征和楔形块体的运动特征。基于实测应力数据和断层滑动理论,隧洞沿线活动断裂目前处于相对稳定状态,而鹤庆-洱源断裂更为接近断层滑动的临界条件,随着应力的不断积累其稳定性情况值得进一步关注。