Segregation Development in Multiple Melt Vacuum Arc Remelting

A numerical model of the vacuum arc remelting (VAR) process was used to study multistage VAR processes. The studies of low and high power 3XVAR confirmed the results of the single stage process studies for Ti-10-2-3: (1) high arc power results in strong electromagnetically driven flow and undesirably high macrosegregation; (2) low arc power does not generate significant Lorentz forces and the flow is dominated by weaker buoyancy forces, which cause less segregation; and (3) even short-lived changes in process conditions during the run may result in a switch of the flow regime in low power cases from buoyancy driven to electromagnetically driven. The switch of flow regime results in an increase in macrosegregation levels and a change in the pattern of solute redistribution. The most significant finding in the studies of 3XVAR processing of Ti-10-2-3 is the small effect of the electrode composition distribution on ingot segregation development. In both low and high power VAR cases, macrosegregation levels and patterns in the final ingots were similar to those demonstrated assuming a uniform electrode for that final case. However, for low power cases, nonuniformities in the electrode composition may strongly affect the final ingot macrosegregation. The nonuniformity in the composition of the electrode results in the formation of additional buoyancy forces within the liquid pool, which can cause a switch from buoyancy driven flow to the undesirable electromagnetically driven flow regime and a drastic change in segregation development. This article is based on a presentation given at the International Symposium on Liquid Metal Processing and Casting (LMPC 2007), which occurred in September 2007 in Nancy, France.     

On the Modeling of Thermal Radiation at the Top Surface of a Vacuum Arc Remelting Ingot

Two models have been implemented for calculating the thermal radiation emitted at the ingot top in the VAR process, namely, a crude model that considers only radiative heat transfer between the free surface and electrode tip and a more detailed model that describes all radiative exchanges between the ingot, electrode, and crucible wall using a radiosity method. From the results of the second model, it is found that the radiative heat flux at the ingot top may depend heavily on the arc gap length and the electrode radius, but remains almost unaffected by variations of the electrode height. Both radiation models have been integrated into a CFD numerical code that simulates the growth and solidification of a VAR ingot. The simulation of a Ti-6-4 alloy melt shows that use of the detailed radiation model leads to some significant modification of the simulation results compared with the simple model. This is especially true during the hot-topping phase, where the top radiation plays an increasingly important role compared with the arc energy input. Thus, while the crude model has the advantage of its simplicity, use of the detailed model should be preferred.     

Determination of the thermophysical properties of titanium alloys from liquid bath profiles

An experimental–theoretical technique is proposed to determine the thermophysical properties of titanium alloys in the liquid phase. This technique is based on analyzing the liquid bath profiles in fully solidified ingots after vacuum arc remelting (VAR). The experimental part of the technique makes it possible to easily estimate liquid bath contours without any markers, such as radioactive isotopes. The theoretical part is based on solving the inverse heat conduction problem for a solidifying ingot. The developed technique is used to determine some thermophysical parameters of the liquid bath and boundary conditions for VAR of titanium alloys Ti–6Al–4V, Ti–5Cr, and Ti–3Fe, since it is extremely difficult to measure them directly.     

USS122G钢锭真空电弧重熔工艺的数值模拟

 超高强度不锈钢以其超高强度和良好的韧性以及优异的耐腐蚀性能而广泛地应用在航空、航天等领域。真空自耗重熔(VAR)作为生产超高强度不锈钢铸锭的主要生产技术,具有去除钢中有害杂质、改善钢中元素偏析的功能。为了研究新型Cr-Co-Ni-Mo合金体系超高强度不锈钢USS122G的真空电弧重熔过程,通过工艺仿真优化软件(Melf-Flow-VAR),对VAR过程的宏观传热、传质和流动现象进行模拟,建立USS122G合金VAR过程的二维轴对称数学模型,预测了不同冷却速度下的温度场和熔池形貌,并着重分析了特定熔速下的温度场、流场的演变,有无氦气冷却的元素宏观偏析情况,最后以模拟工艺制备了USS122G合金660 mm铸锭进行验证。结果表明,熔速增加,熔池深度加深,熔池形貌由低熔速扁平状圆弧状高熔速深“U”变化,熔炼速率为4.5 kg/min的熔池形貌具有较窄的糊状区,在此熔速下,熔池形貌呈现圆弧状,且真空自耗炉的输入功率较低,流场模拟结果显示流体的流动方向沿边部向下,中部向上,在铸锭右侧呈现顺时针运动规律;模拟熔池在达到稳态后深度为132 mm,此时模拟熔池深度与实测结果基本一致;在熔炼过程中Cr和C元素均发生正向偏析,采用氦气冷却的铸锭中元素偏析程度较小,在距钢锭1/2R处到边部Cr和C元素分布规律与模拟结果吻合较好。本项研究成果为钢的工业化稳定生产提供了可靠的数据支撑。     

Arc Distribution During the Vacuum Arc Remelting of Ti-6Al-4V

Currently, the temporal distribution of electric arcs across the ingot during vacuum arc remelting (VAR) is not a known or monitored process parameter. Previous studies indicate that the distribution of arcs can be neither diffuse nor axisymmetric about the center of the furnace. Correct accounting for the heat flux, electric current flux, and mass flux into the ingot is critical to achieving realistic solidification models of the VAR process. The National Energy Technology Laboratory has developed an arc position measurement system capable of locating arcs and determining the arc distribution within an industrial VAR furnace. The system is based on noninvasive magnetic field measurements and a VAR specific form of the Biot–Savart law. The system was installed on a coaxial industrial VAR furnace at ATI Albany Operations in Albany, OR. This article reports on the different arc distributions observed during production of Ti-6Al-4V. It is shown that several characteristic arc distribution modes can develop. This behavior is not apparent in the existing signals used to control the furnace, indicating the measurement system is providing new information. It is also shown that the different arc distribution modes observed may impact local solidification times, particularly at the side wall.     

A Multiscale Transient Modeling Approach for Predicting the Solidification Structure in VAR-Processed Alloy 718 Ingots

This paper describes the development and validation of a comprehensive multiscale modeling approach capable of predicting at the mesoscopic scale level the ingot solidification structure and solidification-related defects commonly occurring during the vacuum arc remelting (VAR) process. The approach consists of a coupling between a fully transient macroscopic code and a mesoscopic solidification structure code. The predictions from the multiscale model, including grain morphology and size and columnar-to-equiaxed transition, were validated against experimental measurements for a 20-inch (508 mm) diameter VAR alloy 718 ingots. The validated model was then used to investigate the effects of melting rate and ingot diameter on the solidification structure of VAR processed 718 ingots.     

Ti2AlNb合金锭真空自耗过程宏观偏析的数值模拟

Ti₂AlNb合金锭的真空电弧重熔(VAR)是一种超高温且不透明冶金过程,很难对这一过程中的熔体流动行为和宏观偏析的形成过程进行试验研究。发展了基于欧拉多相流的电磁场、温度场、流场、溶质场的多场强耦合数学模型,研究了真空自耗过程中的多物理场相互作用机制,对Ti₂AlNb合金锭中成分偏析形成过程及分布规律进行了预测。模拟结果表明,电磁力主要分布于熔池表面,自感电磁力推动金属液由中心向下流动而加深熔池;搅拌电磁力的离心效应则大幅提升熔池的温度场均匀度,促使熔池内金属液中的溶质混合均匀。尽管铸锭外围和中心分别形成了大范围的正、负偏析区,但区域内的成分较为均匀。在搅拌和沉降的作用下,金属熔池中的等轴晶极大地缩短了铸锭中的柱状晶区。该模型的模拟结果在熔池深度与宏观偏析分布方面与试验结果吻合良好,可进一步应用于预测和研究工业级大型铸锭中的成分偏析。     

Solidification of a Vacuum Arc-Remelted Zirconium Ingot

As the quality of vacuum arc-remelted (VAR) zirconium ingots is directly linked to their chemical homogeneity and their metallurgical structure after solidification, it is important to predictively relate these factors to the operating conditions. Therefore, a detailed modeling study of the solidification process during VAR has been undertaken. To this purpose, the numerical macromodel SOLAR has been used. Assuming axisymmetrical geometry, this model is based on the solution of the coupled transient heat, momentum, and solute transport equations, under turbulent flow conditions during the remelting, hot-topping, and cooling of a cylindrical ingot. The actual operating parameters are defined as inputs for the model. Each of them, mainly the melting current sequence, melting rate sequence, and stirring parameters (current and period), is allowed to vary with time. Solidification mechanisms recently implemented in the model include a full coupling between energy and solute transport in the mushy zone. This modeling can be applied to actual multicomponent alloys. In this article, the macrosegregation induced by solidification in a zirconium alloy ingot is investigated. In order to validate the model results, a full-scale homogeneous Zy4 electrode has been remelted, and the resulted ingot has been analyzed. The model results show a general good agreement with the chemistry analyses, as soon as thermosolutal convection is accounted for to simulate accurately the interdendritic fluid flow in the central part of the ingot.     

Liquid Metal Pool Behavior during the Vacuum Arc Remelting of INCONEL 718

Non-steady-state ensemble arc behavior has been observed during the Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR) of 508-mm-diameter ingots of INCONEL 718. The liquid metal flow in the melt pool of a 508-mm ingot during VAR has been simulated under two alternative sets of conditions: (1) a steady-state axisymmetrical arc distribution, as has been typically used in modeling work previously; and (b) a transient asymmetrical arc distribution. Due to the computational requirements, neither mass flux nor solidification were modeled; instead, the pool shape was fixed from measurements from a 508-mm-diameter ingot, and a constant pool wall temperature of 1609 K was used. The transient simulation assumed a localized Gaussian arc whose effective center was located at a distance of 0.1 m from the ingot centerline; this simulation rotated clockwise around the centerline with a period of 36 seconds. The steady-state model was simulated with axisymmetrical distributions of current and power input to the pool top surface calculated by time averaging the transient current and power inputs. The standard k-ε solver of ANSYS CFX 5.6 software was used for both simulations. The transient model results suggest that 5 seconds of asymmetrical arc behavior is enough to change the pool from steady state to transient and that, after 30 seconds, the flow is almost fully developed (at least to the accuracy of the model) and dominated by the Lorentz force. Aspects of the model results agree with key features of the melt pool observed during VAR.     

Achieving the maximum melting rate for various vacuum arc remelting schemes

For traditional vacuum arc remelting, the electrode diameter is found at which the remelting rate is maximal under given electrical conditions. For double-electrode vacuum arc remelting, the dependence of the mutual radial shift of electrodes on the electrode diameter that ensures the maximum output without degrading the ingot quality is determined.     

Modeling of Electromagnetic Field and Liquid Metal Pool Shape in an Electroslag Remelting Process with Two Series-Connected Electrodes

A three-dimensional finite-element model has been developed to understand the electromagnetic field and liquid metal pool shape in an electroslag remelting (ESR) process with two series-connected electrodes. The magnetic vector potential is introduced into the Maxwell’s equations, and the nodal-based method is used to solve a three-dimensional harmonic electromagnetic field. The heat transfer of the solidifying processes of ingot is modeled by a source-based enthalpy method, and the Joule heating is included in an inner source. The results show the main part of the current flows through the slag cap and a little enters into ingot in a two-series-connected electrode ESR system. As the interaction of self-induced and mutual-induced of two electrodes occurs, the skin effect is significantly suppressed by the neighbor effect. A symmetrical pattern of magnetic flux density in a two-series-connected electrode ESR system is displayed. The magnetic flux density between two electrodes is reinforced and reduced at the outside of two electrodes. The maximum Joule heat power density is located at the interface of slag and electrodes, and it decreases with an increase of the electrode immersion depth. The averaged Joule heat power density increases when slag cap thickness is reduced. With the increase of ingot height, the liquid metal pool shape changes from arc shaped to “V” shaped. When the ingot height is more than the diameter in the ESR processes, the liquid metal pool shape is constant.     

钛及钛合金真空自耗熔炼过程中关键参数控制分析

真空自耗熔炼是钛及钛合金铸锭生产的重要方法.真空自耗熔炼炉炉内真空度及漏气率、熔炼电压、熔炼电流、坩埚出水口温度及流速等是保障熔炼过程平稳进行和提升铸锭质量的关键参数.作者依据多年从事钛及钛合金熔炼的经验分析了熔炼工艺对熔炼电压和熔炼电流的控制要求,并在此基础上阐述以实现“平静熔炼”为目标的熔炼控制技术,供从事钛及钛合...     

The Role of Side Arcing in the Global Energy Partition during Vacuum Arc Remelting of INCONEL 718

Non-steady-state ensemble arc behavior has been observed during the Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR) of 508-mm-diameter ingots of INCONEL 718. The liquid metal flow in the melt pool of a 508-mm ingot during VAR has been simulated under two alternative sets of conditions: (1) a steady-state axisymmetrical arc distribution, as has been typically used in modeling work previously; and (b) a transient asymmetrical arc distribution. Due to the computational requirements, neither mass flux nor solidification were modeled; instead, the pool shape was fixed from measurements from a 508-mm-diameter ingot, and a constant pool wall temperature of 1609 K was used. The transient simulation assumed a localized Gaussian arc whose effective center was located at a distance of 0.1 m from the ingot centerline; this simulation rotated clockwise around the centerline with a period of 36 seconds. The steady-state model was simulated with axisymmetrical distributions of current and power input to the pool top surface calculated by time averaging the transient current and power inputs. The standard k-ε solver of ANSYS CFX 5.6 software was used for both simulations. The transient model results suggest that 5 seconds of asymmetrical arc behavior is enough to change the pool from steady state to transient and that, after 30 seconds, the flow is almost fully developed (at least to the accuracy of the model) and dominated by the Lorentz force. Aspects of the model results agree with key features of the melt pool observed during VAR. This article is based on a presentation given at the International Symposium on Liquid Metal Processing and Casting (LMPC 2007), which occurred in September 2007 in Nancy, France.

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Tree-ring formation during vacuum arc remelting of INCONEL 718: Part I. Experimental investigation

In the production of turbine discs, the final wrought structure is critically dependent on aspects of the ingot grain structure produced by vacuum arc remelting (VAR) prior to cogging and forging. Variations in the as-cast grain structure in the nickel-based superalloy INCONEL 718 were investigated, focusing upon regions where strings of equiaxed grains interrupt a predominately columnar-dendritic structure. These features, termed “tree rings,” form concentric circles that can be observed visually on etched transverse sections of the VAR ingot. These structures are of interest because they correlate with perturbations in control of the process and have also been associated with the occurrence of defects. This article describes an experimental study of these tree rings, which both characterizes them and investigates possible mechanisms for their formation. Fluctuations in the macroscopic heat, mass, and momentum transfer, which can increase the grain nucleation at the mushy zone front (similar to a columnar-to-equiaxed transition), were considered to be the most likely of the mechanisms hypothesized. In a second article, a multiscale mathematical model is developed to quantify these concepts and to determine whether they account for the features observed.     

降低工模具钢电渣重熔钢锭顶部缩孔缺陷的工艺实践

通过控制结晶器进水温度40℃,出水68℃;计算机自动补缩模型控制;自动补缩结束时,90 s内完成自耗电极至石墨电极切换,53 V,3 000 A通电熔炼3~5 min,冉切换成自耗电极,50 V,4 000 A,通电6 min等工艺措施,使电渣重熔钢锭顶部缩孔缺陷深度由100 mm降低至30 mm。生产实践表明,补缩工艺操作简单易行,优化工艺生产的工具钢9Cr2Mo,Φ280 mm×1 000 mm,480 kg电渣钢锭210支;热作模具钢H13,420 mm×1 400 mm,1 500 kg电渣钢锭60支,没有再出现因钢锭顶部缺陷而造成锻造坯料报废,钢锭成材率显著提高。     

Arc voltage distribution properties as a function of melting current, electrode gap, and CO pressure during vacuum arc remelting

An industrial vacuum arc remelting experiment was carried out at Cytemp Specialty Steel Corp. (Titusville, PA) during which a 0.432-m-diameter Alloy 718 electrode was remelted into a 0.508-m-diameter ingot. The purpose of the experiment was to investigate the response of the arc voltage distribution properties (mean, standard deviation, and skewness) and the drip-short frequency to melting current, electrode gap, and CO pressure. The responses were characterized by recording and analyzing changes in the temporally averaged properties. Each independent variable was systematically varied in accordance with a modified Yates order factor space experimental design within the following ranges: melting current, 5000 to 11,200 A; electrode gap, 0.004 to 0.056 m; and CO pressure, 0.40 to 14.7 Pa. Statistical models were developed describing the correlation between the averaged arc voltage distribution properties and the independent variables. The models demonstrate that all of the voltage distribution properties, as well as the drip-short frequency, are directly related to electrode gap. An arc column model is presented to account for the mean arc voltage properties and the model is used to estimate the arc column pressure. The potential usefulness of the distribution properties as process diagnostics and control responses is evaluated.     

Physicochemical comparison of electroslag remelting with consumable electrode and electroslag refining with liquid metal

The paper is devoted to comparison of electroslag remelting (ESR) with consumable electrode and electroslag refining with liquid metal (ESR LM) processes. The possibility of rearrangement of the heat contributions coming from the consumable electrode and current supplying mould (non-consumable electrode, CSM) makes the core of the ESR process organisation in the CSM. The usage of liquid metal instead of consumable electrodes allows to reduce liquid bath temperature and volume in order to provide low segregation ingot. The formal assessment of physico-chemical conditions and experimental measurements of desulphurisation have shown the same level of refining ability of both processes. Replacing the classic ESR by the ESR LM is a prospective way to produce high-quality ingots from sophisticated and hard-to-deform materials, whereas manufacturing of the consumable electrodes is technically problematic and costly.     

A Multiscale 3D Model of the Vacuum Arc Remelting Process

A three-dimensional, transient, multiscale model of the VAR process is presented, allowing novel simulations of the influence of fluctuations in arc behavior on the flow and heat transfer in the molten pool and the effect this has on the microstructure and defects. The transient behavior of the arc was characterized using the external magnetic field and surface current measurements, which were then used as transient boundary conditions in the model. The interactions of the magnetic field, turbulent metal flow, and heat transfer were modeled using CFD techniques and this “macro” model was linked to a microscale solidification model. This allowed the transient fluctuations in the dendritic microstructure to be predicted, allowing the first coupled three-dimensional correlations between macroscopic operational parameters and microstructural defects to be performed. It was found that convection driven by the motion of the arc caused local remelting of the mushy zone, resulting in variations in permeability and solute density. This causes variations in the local Rayleigh number, leading to conditions under which freckle solidification defects will initiate. A three-dimensional transient tracking of particle fall-in was also simulated, enabling predictions of “white spot” defects via quantification of the trajectory and dissolution of inclusions entering the melt.     

Stabilization of vacuum arc remelting of steels and alloys

The main cause of the electrode mass melting rate oscillations during vacuum arc remelting (VAR) of steels and alloys is shown to be the displacement of an arc into zones with different metallic vapor pressures. For the remelting process to be stabilized, the arc space length should be controlled as a function of the electrode melting rate and the shrinkage defects in cast electrodes should be removed by high-temperature gasostatic treatment.