Expectancies, alcohol, and sexual arousal in male social drinkers.

Randomly assigned 40 undergraduate males, all social drinkers, to 1 of 2 expectation conditions in which they were led to believe that the beverage they were administered contained either vodka and tonic or tonic only. For half of the Ss in each expectation condition, the beverage contained vodka; the others drank only tonic. After their drinks, measures of penile tumescence were taken from Ss using a penile strain gauge during 2 erotic films, 1 depicting a heterosexual interaction, the other a male homosexual interaction. Although analyses of variance failed to reveal any effect of alcohol per se, there were significant effects of expectation on penile tumescence during both the heterosexual and homosexual films. Ss who believed that they had consumed an alcoholic beverage manifested significantly greater sexual arousal than those believing they had consumed a nonalcoholic beverage, regardless of the contents of their drinks. Although no consistent effects were observed on additional measures of sexual arousal, including the TAT, the Word Association Test, and forehead skin temperature, there was a significant positive correlation between self-report measures of sexual arousal and penile tumescence. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Loss of control drinking in alcoholics: An experimental analogue.

Presented 2 groups of 32 male 23-65 yr old nonabstinent alcoholics and social drinkers with an ad-lib supply of either alcoholic or nonalcoholic beverages in a taste-rating task. Ss were assigned to 1 of 2 instructional set conditions in which they were led to expect that the beverage to be rated contained alcohol (vodka and tonic) or consisted only of tonic. The actual beverage administered consisted of either vodka and tonic or tonic only. Results show that instructional set is a significant determinant of the amount of beverage consumed and posttask estimates of the alcoholic content of the drinks. The actual beverage administered did not significantly affect the drinking rates of either alcoholics or social drinkers. Loss-of-control drinking, in the form of increased consumption by alcoholics who were administered alcohol, did not occur during the drinking task. Results are discussed in terms of implications for treatment and for the conception of alcoholism as a disease. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of alcohol and cognitive set on sexual arousal to deviant stimuli.

48 undergraduate male social drinkers were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 expectancy set conditions in which they were led to believe that the beverage they were administered contained alcohol or no alcohol. For half of the Ss in each expectancy condition, the beverage was an alcoholic malt liquor; the others drank a nonalcoholic malt beverage. After their drinks, changes in penile tumescence (PT) in response to normal and deviant tape recordings and to self-generated fantasy were measured physiologically by a mercury-in-rubber strain gauge. The cognitive set (expectancy) significantly increased PT in response to the various erotic recordings. Alcohol did not significantly influence levels of sexual arousal. Ss who believed they had consumed an alcoholic beverage evidenced significantly more arousal to the forcible rape recording and to the sadistic stimuli than Ss who believed that they had consumed a nonalcoholic beverage, regardless of the actual contents of the beverage. The cognitive set, as well as the alcohol, significantly influenced heart rate, skin temperature, and subjective reports of sexual arousal. Self-report measures of sexual arousal were positively correlated with PT. Mosher Forced-Choice Guilt Inventory scores were not significantly correlated with PT, although the Sex Guilt subscore was negatively correlated with the subjective measure of sexual arousal for the heterosexual intercourse and forcible rape tapes. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Provocation to anger and opportunity for retaliation as determinants of alcohol consumption in social drinkers.

Assigned 30 male and 30 female college students identified as heavy social drinkers to 1 of 6 groups in a 3 * 2 factorial design. In addition to the S sex factor, the 3 main treatment groups were provocation to anger with no opportunity to retaliate, provocation with opportunity for retaliation, and a no-provocation, no-retaliation control group. Provoked Ss were angered by an insulting confederate, whereas controls experienced a neutral interaction with the confederate. In the retaliation condition, Ss were given the opportunity to deliver a fixed number of shocks to the confederate who had provoked them. Drinking rates in all Ss were then determined by their participation in a standardized taste-rating task, which permitted an unobtrusive measure of alcohol consumption. Results show that group members who were provoked and expressed their anger by retaliating against the confederate consumed significantly less alcohol than provoked Ss in the no-retaliation condition. Controls drank an intermediate amount of alcohol but did not differ significantly from the other 2 groups. Sex was not a significant determinant of alcohol consumption. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alcohol and stress response dampening: pharmacological effects, expectancy, and tension reduction

Alcohol consumption and alcohol expectation were separately evaluated in terms of effects on psychophysiological levels prior to stress and reduction of the magnitude of response to stress. 96 male, experienced drinkers were assigned to 8 conditions in a between-Ss design in which beverage consumed (alcohol or tonic), beverage expected (alcohol or tonic), and stressor (self-disclosing speech or threat of shock) were manipulated. Dosage for Ss receiving alcohol was 1 g ethanol/kg. Results indicate strong effects of alcohol consumption on prestress levels, consisting of accelerated heart rate (HR), lower HR variability, higher skin conductance, longer pulse transmission time (PTT), higher "cheerfulness" and lower "anxiety" ratings. Alcohol consumption significantly reduced the magnitude of the HR, PTT, and anxiety responses of Ss to the stressors. No effects attributable to alcohol expectation were found. Results are integrated with the existing literature concerned with pharmacological and cognitive effects of alcohol as they pertain to stress, psychophysiological responses to stress, and tension reduction. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancies, alcohol, and sexual arousal in women.

A total of 40 university female volunteers, all social drinkers aged 18–35 yrs, were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 expectancy conditions in which they were led to believe that the beverage they were administered contained either vodka and tonic or tonic only. For half the Ss in each expectancy condition, the beverage actually contained vodka; for the other half, tonic only. After their drinks, measures of vaginal pressure pulse obtained with a vaginal photoplethysmograph were recorded during a nonerotic control film and 2 erotic films depicting a heterosexual or a homosexual interaction. The 2 groups that received alcohol, regardless of whether they believed that their drinks contained alcohol, showed significantly reduced sexual arousal during both erotic films. No effects of expectancy or an interaction between alcohol and expectancy were obtained. Ss' subjective estimates of intoxication were significantly correlated with their self-report of sexual arousal during both erotic films. The differences between these results and previous findings using similar procedures with male social drinkers are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of alcohol and expectancies on verbal aggression in men and women.

In Exp I, 48 male and 48 female heavy social-drinking undergraduates were assigned to beverage (vodka [.75 ml/kg] and tonic or only tonic) and beverage-expectancy (alcohol or tonic) conditions. Ss were provoked by a confederate's unfavorable evaluation and allowed to retaliate. In Exp II, Exp I was repeated using 44 males and 45 females and higher doses of ethanol (1.12 and 1.10 ml/kg, respectively, for males and females). In Exp III, an experimenter criticized 62 male drinkers (.9 ml/kg ethanol) who later evaluated the experimenter's job performance on a questionnaire for his employer. Results show that for Ss at higher doses and males at the lower dose, those expecting alcohol were significantly less aggressive and at higher doses felt happier than did Ss expecting only tonic. Actual alcohol consumption increased aggression only for females at the lower doses. It is concluded that alcohol by its pharmacologic action alone does not necessarily increase aggression at either a low or a moderately high dose. It is suggested that many of the reinforcements of alcohol use are due to the drinkers' cognition rather than the pharmacologic action of alcohol itself. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Victim reactions in aggressive erotic films as a factor in violence against women.

Investigated whether the behavioral characteristics of the people in erotic films and the nature of the targets available for aggression afterward can affect subsequent aggression. In Exp I, 80 male undergraduates were angered by a male or female confederate. They were then shown a neutral film or 1 of 3 erotic films. The erotic films differed in terms of their aggressive content (2 were aggressive and 1 was not) and the reactions of the female victim in the 2 aggressive films (positive vs negative). Ss were then allowed to aggress against the confederate via electric shock. Results indicated that films had no effect on male targets, whereas both types of aggressive erotic films increased aggression toward the females. In Exp II with 80 male Ss, the effects of the above films on nonangry viewers were investigated with only female confederates. Results indicate that angered Ss were more aggressive toward the female after viewing either aggressive erotic film but that only the positive-outcome aggressive film increased aggression in nonangered Ss. The theoretical and applied aspects of aggressive and nonaggressive erotica are discussed. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alcohol, sexual arousal, and self-control.

Investigated the effects of alcohol on self-regulation using delay of gratification for viewing time for an erotic film as the primary dependent measure. Other measures included reflection–impulsivity, locus of control, sexual-guilt scores, and continuous recording of Ss' penile tumescence. Using a balanced placebo design with 50 undergraduate men, Ss were led to believe that they had consumed an alcoholic or a nonalcoholic beverage, and half of each of these 2 groups received either alcohol or tonic water. In addition, the effects of 3 doses of alcohol (placebo, low dose, high dose) were investigated. Instructional set, regardless of drink content, resulted in longer delay times and increased thoughts with sexual content. Although there was no significant relation between increasing dose of alcohol and delay time, there was an interaction between scores on Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale and alcohol dose. Externalizers showed an inverse linear relation between increasing dose of alcohol and delay time. Internalizers showed the opposite trend. Results support other research showing that expectations about drinking can be more potent predictors of behavior than the pharmacological impact of alcohol. Implications for the self-regulation of sexual behavior under the influence of alcohol are discussed. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Facilitating effects of erotica on aggression against women.

To examine the effects of highly erotic stimuli on aggression against females, 60 male undergraduates were angered by a male or female confederate and exposed to an erotic film, an aggressive film, or a nonfilm condition. Ss were given 2 opportunities to aggress against the confederate. Both the aggressive and the erotic films increased aggression against both targets during the 1st and 2nd aggression opportunities; however, the erotic film facilitated aggression against the female target across the 2 aggression sessions. The processes operating to cause this increase are discussed in terms of reducing restraints against aggressive behavior and the specific cue value of erotic films. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of erotic stimuli on male aggression toward females.

To examine the effects of highly erotic films on aggression toward females, 72 male undergraduates were first either angered or treated in a neutral manner by a male or female confederate. After viewing a highly erotic or a neutral film, Ss were given an opportunity to both aggress against and reward the confederate. Erotic films were found to increase aggression overall, but there was no indication of differential aggression as a function of sex of target. Results for physiological arousal, however, suggested that aggression was possibly inhibited for Ss exposed to an erotic film and paired with a female. Suggestions for future lines of research based on the notion of inhibition are offered, along with observations regarding the sexual arousal and aggression relationship. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aggressive erotica and violence against women.

Examined the effects of aggressive-erotic stimuli on male aggression toward females when 120 male undergraduates were angered or treated in a neutral manner by a male or female confederate. Ss were then shown either a neutral, erotic, or aggressive-erotic film and given an opportunity to aggress against the male or female via the delivery of electric shock. Results indicate that the aggressive-erotic film was effective in increasing aggression overall and that it produced the highest increase in aggression against the female. Even nonangered Ss showed an increase in aggression toward the female after viewing the aggressive-erotic film. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Facilitation of social interaction through deindividuation of the target.

Hypothesized that actors want their perception of a target to be consistent with the type of interaction they expect. It was predicted that Ss expecting to aggress would deindividuate their target through the selective recall of deindividuating information. Conversely, Ss expecting a prosocial interaction should individuate the target. Further, angry Ss should deindividuate the individual who angered them. 124 male undergraduates were either angered or not angered by an experimental confederate and then given the opportunity to either shock, reward, or have no interaction with him. Ss recalled information about the confederate either prior to or after the learning task. Ss expecting to aggress deindividuated the target, whereas Ss expecting a prosocial interaction individuated him. Angry Ss deindividuated the target; nonangry Ss did not. Since the selective recall of information occurred prior to the interaction, the deindividuation (individuation) was aimed at facilitating future behavior rather than justifying it. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attribution and alcohol-mediated aggression.

48 males participated in an aggression task after receiving either alcoholic or placebo beverages and after being told that they had received either a high or a low dose of alcohol. All Ss in the alcohol group actually received the same dose. Measures of aggression were the intensity and duration of shock given to a bogus partner in a RT-pain perception task and a score on a posttask attitude questionnaire. Blood alcohol readings were taken 3 times during the session, and a locus of control scale was administered before and after drinking. For Ss in the alcohol conditions, blood alcohol levels averaged .079% before the task and .085% afterwards. Alcohol resulted in higher aggression scores only on the questionnaire measure, and an interaction between drug and attribution was found for the measure of shock duration. Attribution alone resulted in greater aggression on the measure of shock intensity. Ss in groups where the attribution was discrepant with the drug condition were the most aggressive on the measures of shock intensity and duration. These Ss became more external, reflecting a high correlation between their aggression and a stimulus tone. Results suggest that a person's increased aggressiveness when intoxicated results from an interaction between alcohol and an altered responsivity to provoking stimuli. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-awareness-reducing effects of alcohol consumption.

Three experiments with 180 males examined the effects of alcohol consumption on the self-aware state. Based on a model proposed by J. G. Hull (see record 1982-05684-001), it was predicted that alcohol would reduce self-awareness. In Exp I, Ss consumed either alcohol or tonic and then gave short speeches about themselves. All Ss expected to consume alcohol. The speeches were coded for frequency of self-focused statements. In support of predictions, alcohol reduced the relative frequency of self-focused statements. Exp II replicated this finding and demonstrated that it did not depend on Ss' expectancies regarding the beverage they consumed. Exp III investigated a potential mechanism for these effects. Alcohol was proposed to reduce self-awareness by interfering with the encoding of self-relevant information. Using an incidental-memory paradigm, it was found that high-private self-conscious Ss recalled more self-relevant words than did low-self-conscious Ss under placebo conditions, thus replicating the findings of Hull and A. S. Levy (see record 1980-27166-001). (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aggression-inhibiting influence of sexual humor.

48 undergraduate males participated in an experiment designed to investigate the hypothesis that prior exposure to sexual humor would reduce the level of aggression directed by angry individuals against the person who had previously provoked them. Ss were first angered or not angered by a male confederate; next, exposed to either neutral, nonhumorous pictures or to 1 of 2 types of sexual humor (nonexploitative, exploitative); and finally, provided with an opportunity to aggress against this individual by means of electric shock. Results indicate that exposure to exploitative sexual humor, but not exposure to nonexploitative sexual humor, significantly reduced the strength of Ss' later attacks against the victim. Findings are discussed in terms of the results of a follow-up study in which 2 groups of male Ss examined the exploitative or nonexploitative sexual cartoons and rated the extent to which they would fantasize about these stimuli, following their removal. Results of this study suggest that individuals are more likely to think or fantasize about exploitative than nonexploitative sexual humor following the removal of such stimuli. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of alcohol on social anxiety in women: Cognitive versus physiological processes.

Randomly assigned 32 female social drinkers (18–25 yr old undergraduates) to 4 conditions in a 2?×?2 factorial design that controlled for drink content and expectations. Ss were administered either an alcoholic or a nonalcoholic beverage and were led to believe that their drinks contained or did not contain alcohol. After finishing their drinks Ss participated in a study of social anxiety in which they were requested to interact with a male confederate of the experimenter. Multiple measures, including heart rate, skin conductance, and overt behavioral and self-report responses, were recorded. Ss who expected alcohol showed significant elevations in physiological arousal and were rated as more anxious on observational measures of social behavior. Self-report measures failed to yield any differences among groups. Implications for the tension reduction theory of alcohol use and the importance of multiple response measures are discussed. (1? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of instructions and feedback on blood alcohol level discrimination training in nonalcoholic drinkers.

Investigated whether nonalcoholic drinkers can be trained to discriminate their blood alcohol levels (BAL) on the basis of internal cues. 72 male undergraduates classified as heavy drinkers came to the laboratory for 3 consecutive sessions, each consisting of 5 BAL estimation trials. The 2 manipulated independent variables factorially combined were beverage sequence and administration of BAL feedback. All Ss were told that they would receive mixed drinks containing vodka and tonic on each day, and all Ss received alcohol on Day 1. On Day 2, half of the Ss received alcohol and half received tonic alone; similarly, half of the Ss in each of these groups received either alcohol or tonic on Day 3. No S received BAL feedback on Day 1, and one-third of Ss did not receive feedback on Days 2 and 3. The remaining Ss received feedback on Day 2; half of the latter Ss also received feedback on Day 3, and half did not. Ss did not learn to discriminate their BAL on the basis of internal cues. Results are discussed in reference to the utility of BAL discrimination training in alcoholism prevention programs. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alcohol's effects on physiological arousal and self-reported affect and sensations.

60 male normal drinkers (undergraduates) were instructed that they would receive an alcoholic, nonalcoholic, or an unidentified beverage that would be alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Half the Ss in each instruction group consumed an alcoholic beverage; the other half consumed a non-alcoholic beverage. Self-reports of affect (Mood Adjective Check List, Multiple Affect Adjective Check List) and bodily sensations and measures of pulse rate and skin conductance were obtained at baseline and during the ascending and descending phases of the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) function. Analysis of covariance showed that Ss who consumed alcohol reported higher levels of positive affects and sensations and lower levels of depression than Ss who did not consume alcohol. The instructional manipulation had a limited effect. Self-reports of affect and sensations were most affected by type of beverage consumed; sensations were also rated higher during the ascending than during the descending phase of the BAC. Physiological measures were influenced by instructions and beverage. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling influences in social drinking: An experimental analogue.

48 male college students classified as heavy social drinkers were assigned to 1 of 6 groups in a 3 * 2 factorial design. The 1st factor consisted of 3 modeling conditions: exposure to a model who was a heavy consumer of alcohol; a light drinking model; and a no-model control condition. For the 2nd factor, Ss engaged in a brief prior social interaction with the model who played a role that was either warm or cold in emotional quality. Modeling effects were then assessed in a laboratory wine-tasting task in which the S and the model participated together. Ss exposed to the heavy drinking model drank significantly more alcohol than Ss in the low-consumption model and no-model conditions, which did not differ from each other. The prior interaction conditions did not affect drinking behavior. Results are discussed within a theoretical framework that emphasizes the social learning determinants of drinking behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)