The nursery school environment.

Observed 48 preschool-age children in 2 nursery school settings for social and dependency behavior. The schools were similar in most respects but differed in child-teacher ratio and grading. School 1 had a child-teacher ratio of 3.5:1; School 2 had a ratio of 7:1. Findings indicate that inthe setting with more adults present per child, Ss interacted significantly more with adults and less with peers. Different factors for interaction were found for the schools, but patterns were similar over both settings with Ss high in adult interaction tending not to interact with peers and, conversely, Ss low in adult interaction tending to interact more with peers. Observations showed the groups to be similar in overall frequency of dependency; however, Ss in the high-adult setting made proportionally more adult-directed dependency bids. Frequencies of social behaviors were compared with previous results. Principal findings for frequencies of social interaction, dependency, and patterns of interaction are attributed to the effect of the child-teacher ratio. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social dominance, reproduction, and release of the maturation-delaying chemosignal in the urine of female house mice (Mus musculus).

Conducted 5 experiments to investigate the effects of social status in groups of female mice on reproduction and on the release of urinary chemosignals that accelerate or delay the onset of sexual maturation. In Exps I and II, using 184 Ss, treatment of young females with urine from bottom-ranking, but not top-ranking, Ss in groups of 5 adult females resulted in delays in puberty comparable to those produced by treatment with urine pooled from females housed at moderate to high densities. In Exps III and IV, using 220 Ss, there was an interaction between the S's social rank and the stages of the estrous cycle with respect to the presence in the urine of chemosignals from grouping that delay puberty and estrus that accelerate puberty. Within groups of 5 Ss, top-ranking Ss were in estrus more frequently than bottom-ranking Ss. Individually caged Ss treated with urine from top-ranking females were in estrus more frequently than those treated with urine from bottom-ranking females. In Exp V, using 100 Ss, when grouped females were separated into individual cages and mated, more top-ranking Ss conceived and bore litters than bottom-ranking Ss. Bottom-ranking Ss produced more female pups than did top- and middle-ranking Ss. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of photoperiod and social environment on sexual maturation in female deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii).

Tested the reproductive response of young female deer mice to either a long or short photoperiod combined with the presence of adult males, adult females, or social isolation. 266 Ss were reared on either a long photoperiod (15 hrs light, 9 hrs dark) or on short days (8 hrs light, 16 hrs dark) from birth. Beginning at weaning, females were housed with an adult male, with an adult female, or in social isolation. In Exp I, vaginas opened more slowly in Ss on short days than in those on long days. Vaginal introitus was also retarded in Ss reared with an adult female in comparison with Ss reared in isolation. When examined at 37 days of age, Ss reared with an adult male had larger uteri than those reared alone; uteri were also larger in long-day than in short-day Ss. In Exp II, Ss were killed at 30 days of age; again, uterine growth was stimulated by exposure to either long days or an adult male. As was previously demonstrated for male deer mice, sexual maturation in females is regulated by photoperiod and social cues. Heterospecific social stimuli accelerate maturation in individuals that otherwise would be inhibited by having been reared on a short photoperiod. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An observational study of peer interaction in racially mixed "accelerated" classrooms.

Observed the peer interactions of 69 White and 32 Black 8th graders each week of a semester. The race and sex of the person with whom S was interacting were coded, as were the behavior's mutuality (one-sided, mutual), affective tone (positive, neutral, negative), and orientation (task oriented, ambiguous, social). Considerably more cross-race interaction was noted than found in previous studies conducted in nonacademic settings in interracial schools. Ss interacted significantly more with peers of their own race than with peers of the other race. This was due to the females' strong own-race preference. Males interacted cross-racially at approximately the rate that would be expected if race were not a factor in interactant choice. Male interactions were predominantly mutual in nature, whereas those of females were predominantly one-sided. There were no major differences in the tone of the inter- or intraracial interactions of Ss in the 4 sex–race subgroups. Negative behaviors constituted less than 1% of all interactions. Cross-race interactions of all groups were more task related than within-race interactions, within-race interactions were more social than cross-race interactions. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social interaction and children's relative inputs on older women's psychological well-being.

Sampled 719 White females, ages 60–75 yrs; half of the Ss were widows and half were currently married, living with a spouse. For each marital-status group, half were childless and half had living children. Results reveal that contact with relatives, friends, and associates was more important for Ss' well-being than contact with children and that well-being was enhanced by quality of interaction. Perceived quality of child contact appeared to be influenced by Ss' perceptions of other social relationships. Weak support for equity theory explanations of relationship satisfaction was found. For Ss with children the amount of interaction appeared unimportant whereas for childless Ss the amount and quality of contact with others was positively related to well-being. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social support and parental adjustment to pediatric cancer.

Assessed the psychosocial adjustment of 107 23–58 yr old parents whose children had cancer using the Psychosocial Adjustment to Illness Scale. Ss whose child had died showed poorer adjustment than Ss whose child was in treatment or had completed treatment. Ss over 30 yrs of age showed better adjustment than younger Ss. Different patterns of association between 11 sources of social support and adjustment were found. Psychosocial adjustment of Ss with a child in treatment was correlated more frequently with perceived social support than for other Ss. Results suggest that particular attention should be paid to the psychosocial adjustment of young bereaved parents. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal study of dominance in an outdoor colony of domestic rats.

A colony of Sprague-Dawley albino rats in a large outdoor enclosure was observed daily for 15 mo. In both the colonizing Ss and their progeny, social dominance followed a 2-stage pattern. Among socially immature males of less than 150 days of age, social interaction typically took the form of play fighting and produced dominance hierarchies that were relatively unstable, nonfunctional in regard to activities such as copulation, and nonpredictive of adult dominance. Socially mature males, in contrast, won contests with aggressive acts such as biting/chasing, had the highest frequencies of social interaction and copulation, and were most active in attacking interlopers. There were also indications, based on more limited evidence, that maternally active females established functional and somewhat stable hierarchies. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Application of Watts's Human Interaction Scale to the study of competence-supporting aspects of day care environments.

Observed 12 2-yr-olds in 2 day-care centers with different adult–child ratios and resources. Ss were videotaped for 45 min in 7–25-min blocks during waking hours. Observations were categorized according to J. C. Watts's (1973) scale for each behavior setting in each center. Results indicate that Ss in the center with the 1:3 adult–child ratio received interaction experiences similar to those reported by Watts for comparably aged children who developed high levels of competence, while Ss in the other center (a 1:6 ratio) received interaction experiences comparable to those reported by Watts for children who developed lower levels of competence. (French summary) (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's physical attractiveness and sex as determinants of adult punitiveness.

Investigated a child's physical attractiveness and sex as potential elicitors of differential adult punitiveness. Ss in Exps I and II were 52 white females and 44 white males, respectively. Ss in both groups viewed a videotaped interaction between the E and a child who was made to appear either physically attractive or unattractive. Subsequently, Ss monitored what was presumably the child's performance on a picture-matching task and administered penalties to the child for incorrect responses. The specific penalty involved taking 1-5 pennies away from the child for each error. Results show that women behaved more leniently towards an attractive boy than towards either an attractive girl or an unattractive boy; these results were interpreted in the context of a cross-sex leniency effect mediated by a child's physical attractiveness. Men were not influenced in administering penalties by either a child's attractiveness or sex. It is suggested that the data reflect differences in men's and women's orientations toward children's task behavior. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mother–child interactional style in abuse, neglect, and control groups: Naturalistic observations in the home.

Examined mother–child interactional patterns in an urban environment. Three groups of mothers (n?=?12/group) were included in the study: (a) Ss with a known history of child abuse, (b) Ss with a known history of child neglect, and (c) Ss with no known history of child maltreatment. Ss and their children were observed in their homes on 3 consecutive days for 90 min each day. Interactions were described via a coding system of 11 major interactional patterns; dependent variables included verbal and nonverbal behaviors as well as measures of total interaction. Results indicate that the groups differed on several variables. Dysfunctional Ss showed significantly fewer positive behaviors than did the controls on verbal and nonverbal measures. Also, the abusive Ss showed significantly higher rates of verbal and physical aggression; the neglectful mothers had the lowest overall rates of interaction. The maltreated children also exhibited fewer positive behaviors and more aggressive behaviors. Results are discussed in terms of current theories of child maltreatment and of the treatment of dysfunctional families. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of maternal social skills in multiproblem families: Effects on the mother-child relationship.

Tested a two-step infant preventive intervention model: Step 1 was for the mother to improve her interpersonal competence with other adults; Step 2 was for her to learn more optimal parenting behavior. Ss were 147 multiproblem mothers and their infants. Assessed the mothers' adult social skills pre- and posttreatment. Measured the percentage of treatment goals attained during treatment, and mother–child interactive quality posttreatment. Data partially supported the model: For women who began the program with low social skills, the attainment of treatment goals was positively related to posttreatment social skills (Step 1), which, in turn, were positively related to the quality of mother–child interaction (Step 2). For those women who began with high social skills, the treatment was unrelated to posttreatment social skills or to mother–child interaction. Additional analyses explored the factors associated with individual differences in delivery of services and response to treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's justifications for their adult and peer-directed compliant (prosocial and nonprosocial) behaviors.

Examined differences in the quality of child–child and adult–child interactions and children's reasoning about their own compliant behaviors. 61 45–65 mo olds were observed in their classrooms and were interviewed briefly concerning their behavior whenever they were seen complying with either an adult's or a peer's request or demand. Only 32% of compliant behaviors requested by adults were prosocial (directly benefited another), whereas 76% of compliant behaviors requested by peers were prosocial. Ss frequently justified behaviors requested by adults with references to authorities' dictates and punishment. Ss attributed behaviors requested by peers to other-oriented or relational (friendship, liking) concerns more frequently than they did behaviors requested by adults. The difference in the use of authority/punishment and other-oriented justifications for peer- and adult-requested behaviors was found with regard to both prosocial and nonprosocial requests; Ss used more justifications regarding liking of others and friendship only when the request was prosocial in content. Data are discussed in terms of their support for theorists' assertions regarding the difference in peer and adult interaction and in relation to the literature on children's reasoning and attributions about prosocial behaviors. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inducing affect about self or other: Effects on generosity in children.

85 7–12 yr olds were asked to discuss happy, sad, or affectively neutral incidents that had been experienced either by themselves or by another child. Following the inducement of affect, the Ss were given the opportunity to share their experimental earnings with some less fortunate children. As predicted, a significant interaction of the discussion topic (self/other) and affect was found. Ss relating sad experiences encountered by another individual shared significantly more than those describing sad incidents that they had experienced. Although older Ss were more generous than the younger Ss in sharing their experimental earnings, age did not interact with the other experimental variables. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal consequences of person perception processes in two social contexts.

Examined whether perceiver-based perceptual processes affect social behavior. Approximately 1,100 undergraduates were exposed to a videotape that portrayed a male or female child interacting with an adult in a playroom. In Study 1, Ss who "saw" the child emit (a) primarily positive behaviors (i.e., Ss who were positively biased), (b) about equal numbers of positive and negative behaviors (i.e., Ss who were accurate), or (c) primarily negative behaviors (i.e., Ss who were negatively biased) then engaged in cooperative task activities with a 7-yr-old child. In Study 2, a subset of these Ss engaged in a discussion with another undergraduate about 3 issues on which they apparently disagreed. Systematic analyses of these interactions suggested that perceptual processes affected social behavior—negatively biased Ss tended to act in a more authoritarian manner in their encounters with the child, whereas positively biased Ss were the least effective in the discussion task. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of gender constancy and children's sex-typed free play behavior.

64 preschool children (aged 27–70 mo) with nearly equal numbers of boys and girls at each of 4 levels of gender constancy were observed during free-play sessions at their preschools to examine relationships among gender constancy, preferences for same- or opposite-sex playmates, and sex-typed activities. Each S's play was rated 40 times on a point-time schedule for type of activity and playmate-interaction style. With the effect of age removed, level of gender constancy was found to be related to playmate choice in social interaction. Females who had acquired an understanding that gender is temporally but not situationally stable engaged in more same-sex social interaction than females who understood that gender is invariant across situations. There were no differences in the proportion of same-sex social interaction among males at the 4 levels of gender constancy. Ss at all levels of gender constancy were found to be sex-typed in their toy and activity preferences when they played alone and when they played in parallel or interacted with same-sex peers but not when they played in parallel in mixed-sex groups. Males but not females were found to be sex-typed in activity preferences in mixed-sex social interaction. These findings suggest that, at least for females, gender concepts may have an organizing role in sex-role development by motivating children to seek social contexts in which to acquire and practice sex-appropriate behaviors. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Open-space schools: Anticipation of peer interaction and development of cooperative interdependence.

42 same-sex pairs of varied racial composition were randomly selected from 8th graders in each of 2 matched schools, with open- vs closed-space architectural styles. Open-space Ss were more likely to develop cooperative interdependence in a mixed-motive game (a decomposed prisoner's dilemma) and were more inclined to make proximal seating choices indicative of anticipated peer interaction. A Sex by Race by Trial Blocks interaction effect reflected different patterns of responding for males and females. Females of either race learned to cooperate in same-race pairs and to compete in mixed-race pairs. White males learned to cooperate and Black males to compete independent of their partner's race. External scores on Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale were not related to schools but were, as expected, higher for Black than for White students. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of early abuse on adult affective reactions to exposure to dyadic conflict.

Studied the relationship between abuse in the family of origin and adult emotional responses to family conflicts in 60 males (mean age 19.7 yrs) and 60 females (mean age 19.6 yrs). Ss were administered the Conflict Tactics Scale and the Adjective Checklist (AC) to assess the tactics used by them to solve their problems and their emotional state, respectively. Ss listened to conflict tapes and completed another AC along with a set of perceptual questions. Exposure to conflict tactics in the family of origin was associated with heightened emotional responses to anticipated conflict, the effects being continued into adulthood. Antecedents to conflict were also related to family of origin experience with withdrawal, verbal and physical abuse. There was no significant difference between identification with the mother and the child, and the Ss identified more strongly with the father than the child. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Responsiveness to estrous chemostimuli in male rats (Rattus norvegicus) of different ages.

Examined the development of behavioral responsiveness to estrous chemostimuli in 48 male Norway rats from late infancy to adulthood. Preweanling, adolescent, and adult Ss were observed for 20 min in the presence of an anesthetized estrous or an anesthetized diestrous female. This was, for adolescent and adult Ss, the 1st heterosexual encounter since weaning. Ss in each age group responded differentially according to female state, but in distinct, age-related ways: Preweanling Ss spent more time investigating the female's body if she was estrous. Adults expressed the same affinity but by more focused investigation directed perivaginally. Adolescents showed no female-directed bias but groomed themselves more if the female was estrous. These data identify developmental continuities and discontinuities in male rat behavior toward sexually receptive females. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some determinants of a natural food aversion in Norway rats.

Adult male Long-Evans rats were permitted to feed on the carcasses of adult male rodents, freshly sacrificed by CO? asphyxiation. In a 2-choice preference test (Exp I), hungry Ss were offered 1 conspecific and 1 house mouse, the pair of carcasses being either intact or skinned. 18 Ss offered intact carcasses fed on the mouse or on neither carcass, but 18 Ss offered skinned carcasses fed indiscriminately, usually on both carcasses. In Exp II, 10 hungry Ss that earlier had observed a cagemate feeding on intact conspecific carcasses fed more readily on a similar carcass during a single-choice test than did 8 controls. In Exp II, 20 food-deprived Ss (96 hrs) fed more readily and consumed more tissue from an intact conspecific carcass than did 20 nondeprived Ss. It is concluded that the aversion to feeding on the intact carcass of a freshly sacrificed adult conspecific is deprivation dependent and is mediated by chemoreceptive stimuli from the skin and/or fur. The aversion is diminished by social facilitation. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)