A correlation of rewetting data

Following a loss-of-coolant accident in a water reactor the fuel pins dry out and overheat and it becomes necessary to rewet them to restore normal temperatures. A thermal conduction analysis of rewetting is presented in which it is shown that the heat transfer coefficient associated with rewetting may be taken as an arbitrary function of surface temperature, rather than a constant, without changing the dependency of rewetting velocity on the other variables. An effective heat transfer coefficient then replaces the constant value used in previous expressions for the rewetting velocity. Experiments at atmospheric pressure show that the rewetting rate increases with inlet water subcooling. The available rewetting data at both atmospheric and elevated pressure have been analysed using an existing theoretical model. Taking the effective heat transfer coefficient as proportional to the product of mass flow rate and inlet subcooling a data fit has been achieved to within a factor of two. Expressions are given which predict rewetting rates for a wide range of pressures, wall temperatures, subcoolings, clad materials and geometries.     

The thermal conductivity of hexagonal boron nitride parallel to the basal planes

Detailed measurements of the basal thermal conductivity and specific heat of boron nitride have recently been reported over the range 1.5–350 K. Boron nitride is a lattice conductor with a conductivity varying as T^2.4 below 10 K, while the lattice specific heat varies as T³ over the same range. This anomalous difference in the temperature dependence of lattice conductivity and specific heat is similar to that observed in graphite. The theory of the lattice conductivity of graphite parallel to the basal planes is applied to the explanation of this anomaly. It appears that the value of C₄₄ in this lattice must be smaller than that of graphite.     

Approximate functions for the fast computation of the thermodynamic properties of heavy water

A set of some approximate functions derived for the fast computation of the thermodynamic properties of heavy water at saturation, in subcooled liquid and superheated vapor states is presented. To derive these functions, the data given in the steam tables by Hill et al. AECL 7531 (1981) were accurately and successfully fitted with curves by using the least-squares method. Specific volume (or density), specific enthalpy, specific entropy, constant-pressure specific heat and temperature at saturation were approximated by a number of piecewise continuous functions of pressure whereas pressure at saturation was approximated by a piecewise continuous function of temperature for heavy water. Density in subcooled liquid state, specific volume in superheated vapor state, specific enthalpy, specific entropy and constant-pressure specific heat in both of these states were also approximated as piecewise continuous functions of pressure and temperature for heavy water. The correlations presented in this study can be used in the two-phase thermalhydraulic system analysis of CANDU-PHW reactor with confidence.     

Analysis of BDBA in RBMK-1500 reactor with long-term loss of heat removal from the core

The Ignalina nuclear power plant (NPP) is a twin-unit with two RBMK-1500, graphite moderated, boiling water, multichannel reactors. The accident management guidelines for beyond design basis accidents (BDBAs) are in a stage of preparation at Ignalina NPP. The most challenging event from BDBAs is the unavailability of water sources for heat removal from fuel channels (FCs). Due to specific design of RBMK, there are a few possibilities for heat removal from reactor core by non-regular means: depressurisation of reactor cooling system (RCS) (if pressure in cooling circuit is high) and supply of water into cooling system from low pressure water sources, removal of heat from graphite stack by reactor gas circuit, removal of heat from reactor core using cooling circuit of control and protection system channels, etc. The possibility to remove the heat using cooling circuit of control and protection system channels looks very attractive, because the channels with control rods are cooled with water supplied by the system totally independent from the reactor cooling system. The heat from fuel channels, where heat is generated, through graphite columns is transferred in radial direction to cooled channels with control rods. Therefore, the heat removal from RBMK-1500 reactor core using control rods cooling circuit can be used as non-regular mean for reactor cool-down in case of BDBAs with loss of long-term heat removal from the core.     

Development of partial-charge potential for GaN

Partial-charged potentials for GaN are systematically developed that describe a wide range of structural properties, where the reference data for fitting the potential parameters are taken from ab initial calculations or experiments. The present potential model provides a good fit to different structural geometries and high pressure phases of GaN. The high-pressure transition from wurtzite to rock-salt structure is correctly predicted yielding the phase transition pressure of about 55 GPa, and the calculated volume change at the transition is in good agreement with experimental data. The results are compared with those obtained by ab initio simulations.     

重水研究堆热柱石墨潜能释放分析研究

重水研究堆堆内石墨构件在长期中子辐照下将会累积潜能,为确保重水研究堆堆内石墨构件安全退役及处理处置,本文采用差示扫描量热仪对重水研究堆3个不同位置所取热柱石墨样品进行了潜能测量,扫描温度范围为10～550 ℃、升温速率为10 ℃/min。结果表明：3个位置的样品在80～500 ℃温度积分区间内潜能释放量分别为70.690、42.167、18.158 J/g;潜能释放率曲线峰值温度均大于300 ℃,未辐照石墨样品的比热容较热柱石墨样品释放率dS/dT（S为潜能释放量（J/g）,T为温度（℃））高,表明本实验所取石墨样品不会发生潜能释放导致石墨自身温度上升的情况;3个位置样品的快中子注量分别为6.75×10¹⁶、6.10×10¹⁴、1.89×10⁷ cm^-2;获得了潜能释放分数曲线与潜能释放速率曲线,1#和2#位置样品的潜能释放速率曲线具有至少2个释放峰,表明潜能释放过程中具有至少2个动力学过程。     

锗探测器拟合探测效率的不确定度分析

采用双对数多项式对4组锗探测器探测效率实验数据进行了拟合,计算了拟合探测效率及其相对标准不确定度,分析了影响拟合值不确定度的主要因素。分析结果表明：在6~2754 keV能量范围内,采用5阶或6阶双对数多项式能较好地拟合锗探测器探测效率,在实验数据能量范围内,拟合值不确定度主要受实验数据不确定度和测点密集程度的影响。在实验数据精度高、测点密集的能区,拟合值不确定度低;在实验数据精度低、测点稀少的能区,拟合值不确定度高。在实验数据能量范围外,拟合值不确定度会快速增大,因此不宜使用双对数多项式拟合的方式确定实验数据能量范围外γ光子的探测效率。     

A classical molecular dynamics study of the correlation between the Bredig transition and thermal conductivity of stoichiometric uranium dioxide

Thermophysical properties of uranium dioxide are investigated by classical molecular dynamics for temperatures from 300 K to 3000 K. An increase of specific heat in the temperature range from 1300 K to 2500 K is noted. Comparison with a theoretical model shows that the origin of this behavior is only due to anharmonicity. Such characteristic features of the Bredig transition as the peak in specific heat and high ionic conductivity are investigated. We show that one more important feature was left unnoticed: the rise in the lattice contribution to thermal conductivity at high temperatures. An explanation is provided for this effect which is specific to superionic conductors. Reasonable agreement with experimental data up to 3000 K is obtained for thermal conductivity, even in the absence of electronic excitations.     

Thermophysical properties of mixed oxide fuel and stainless steel type 316 for use in transition phase analysis

For use in transition phase analysis, we have obtained thermodynamic and transport properties of mixed oxide fuel and stainless steel type 316, over a very wide range of temperatures. The majority of the thermodynamic properties for these materials in their solid and liquid states are based on either actual experimental data or extrapolation of low temperature data. However, a number of properties for these materials in the vapor state are based on very limited and scarce data. These properties include saturation vapor pressure, latent heat of vaporization and specific volume of saturated vapor. Due to complete lack of experimental data, a number of other properties such as specific heats, heat of vaporization (especially for stainless steel), transport properties, and the properties at the critical state had to be estimated by use of generally reliable empirical relations. It is recommended that efforts be initiated to obtain experimental data for these materials in the vapor state to verify both existing empirical relations and the relationships that are obtained here based on theoretical analyses.     

An equilibrium and kinetic study of the liquid sodium-hydrogen reaction and its relevance to sodium-water leak detection in LMFBR systems

A detailed study of the thermodynamic and kinetic properties of the liquid sodium-hydrogen system has been made. The technique employed was to measure the rate of absorption to equilibrium of successive hydrogen additions by a vigorously stirred excess of liquid sodium (< 10 ppm dissolved oxygen) in an isothermal, constant volume, stainless steel (316) reaction vessel in the temperature range 610–677 K. The results have been used to estimate the variation of hydrogen pressure with time for a given, steady, water leak rate into the argon gas blanket above the liquid sodium level in a secondary heat exchanger of an LMFBR, and also to calculate solution rates of hydrogen bubbles (formed from a sodiumwater reaction under the liquid sodium surface) as a function of initial bubble radius.     

Comparison of oxidation model predictions with gasification data of IG-110, IG-430 and NBG-25 nuclear graphite

A phenomenological oxidation kinetics model of graphite is presented and its results are compared with the reported experimental gasification data for nuclear graphite of IG-110, IG-430 and NBG-25. The model uses four elementary chemical kinetics reactions, employs Gaussian-like distributions of the specific activation energies for adsorption of oxygen and desorption of CO gas, and accounts for the changes in the effective surface areas of free active sites and stable oxide complexes with weight loss. The distributions of the specific activation energies for adsorption and desorption, the values of the pre-exponential rate coefficients for the four elementary chemical reactions and the surface area of free active sites are obtained from the reported measurements using a multi-parameter optimization algorithm. At high temperatures, when gasification is diffusion limited, the model calculates the diffusion velocity of oxygen in the boundary layer using a semi-empirical correlation developed for air flows at Reynolds numbers ranging from 0.001 to 100. The model also accounts for the changes in the external surface area, the oxygen pressure in the bulk gas mixture and the effective diffusion coefficient in the boundary layer with weight loss. The model results of the total gasification rate and weight loss with time in the experiments agree well with the reported measurements for the three types of nuclear graphite investigated, at temperatures from 723 to 1226 K and weight loss fractions up to ～0.86.     

Contribution to the theory of radiation effects on some properties of graphite

A substantial change occurs in several of the properties of graphite subjected to in-pile irradiation. These changes are the result of damage to the crystal lattice structure of the graphite. The present article presents a calculation of the change in lattice constant and internal energy of a unit volume of a crystal of graphite containing Frenkel defect-type imperfections. The results of the calculation are compared with experimental data.In conclusion, the author would like to avail himself of this opportunity to express his profound gratitude to A. I. Leipunskii for his kind attention to the progress of the work and the numerous useful comments advanced in discussions of the results.     

千瓦级2 K超流氦板翅式换热器初步设计优化

本文采用分布参数法对1 000 W@2 K低温系统配套的50 g/s流量2 K换热器进行了设计计算。利用加权系数法提出了换热器综合优化指标,随后采用遗传算法进行优化,并根据工程需要从多个侧重点对换热器进行优化,获得了一系列优化方案,从中选择了侧重换热效率的方案作为初步设计结果。在该结果的基础上,进一步采用了CFD数值仿真校核,验证了初步设计结果的准确性。优化后换热器的换热效率为844%,压降为22216 Pa,体积为0022 1 m3。     

TiHf合金吸氘动力学行为研究

采用恒容变压法研究了系列组分钛铪合金TiHfx(x=0.13、0.26、0.52)和Hf在相同初压、473K~873K温度下的吸氘动力学行为,获得了吸氘量与吸氘时间的关系,分析了影响动力学行为的因素。在473K~873K温度范围内,TiHfx合金吸氘曲线在高温和低温下具有两种不同的特征,揭示了不同的反应机制。在673K以上,TiHfx吸氘经历α→β相变过程,而673K以下的吸氘过程为α→δ相变。结果可见,TiHfx-D体系的共析相变温度在673K附近,随Hf含量增加,共析相变温度升高。     

Investigation of oxidation behaviors of nuclear graphite being developed and IG-110 based on gas analysis

The oxidation behaviors of the nuclear graphite being developed were investigated using gas chromatograph at 873–1373 K. The oxidation experiments were carried out with the gas flow rate of 0.2 L/min and the oxygen concentrations of 7, 10 and 20 mol%. The oxidation reaction began at 973 K and was accelerated with the increase of temperature. At 1173–1273 K, the oxidation was limited by oxygen supplied to graphite and the reaction rate held steady. From 1273 to 1373 K, the oxidation rate increased obviously due to the significant reaction between CO₂ and graphite. At the low temperature regime (973–1073 K), the apparent activation energies with the oxygen mole fractions of 7%, 10% and 20% were 298, 324 and 321 kJ/mol, respectively. Scanning electron microscope was applied to reveal the pore development of the graphite oxidized at different temperatures. The effect of CO combustion at temperature below 1173 K was discussed based on the oxidation behaviors of the graphite being developed and IG-110. It was suggested that the ASTM D7542-15 standard should be adjusted to fit some popular graphite, such as graphite IG-110.     

Air-hydrogen deflagration tests at the University of Pisa

In severe accidents, large amounts of hydrogen may be released in the safety containment of a nuclear plant and the gas mixture may become explosive. The University of Pisa and ENEA have undertaken an experimental program to study the physics of flame propagation in a containment model under accident conditions. Up to now 41 deflagration tests have been performed at the HYDRO-SC facility at ambient pressure and temperature. Concentrations, water spray conditions, ignition source and gas turbulence levels were varied. The vessel volume was 0.5 m³, the ignition sources were an electrical spark discharge and an electrically heated surface (glow-plug), the hydrogen molar fractions were in the range 4–16%, the turbulence was generated by fan or spray and two different spray nozzles were utilized. The experimental data indicate that the peak pressures nearly fit the adiabatic isochoric values at the highest hydrogen concentrations and gas turbulences. Weak pressure waves were observed for H₂ molar fractions greater than 10%. A careful examination of the pressure and temperature transients gave information on the flame path and on the heat transfer process during and after combustion. Scale effects on the peak pressures were not observed by comparison of the HYDRO-SC results with data obtained in other laboratories. The glow plug igniter has proved to be a reliable tool for use in deliberate ignition schemes for hydrogen control in nuclear plants.     

Critical heat flux prediction in rod bundles under upward low mass flux densities

The analysis of experimental data and results of calculations for heat transfer crisis in heated channels under low upward coolant mass flux densities is presented. This analysis allows the determination of the basic features of the boiling crisis phenomenon. It is shown that the methods currently used for critical heat flux (CHF) prediction have insufficient accuracy in the given range of parameters. A new relationship for the CHF calculation is presented. It should be used for the water–water energy reactor (WWER) and uran–graphite channel reactor—Chernobyl-type (RBMK) rod bundles, and is verified by the test data. The comparison of results obtained by a new CHF correlation and the relationship used in RELAP5/MOD3.1 Code is presented. It is shown that the latter overpredicts the CHF values at atmospheric pressure and for x_cr>0.4 and does not provide conservative estimations for the RBMK fuel bundles.     

Dynamic Monte-Carlo modeling of thermal desorption of H2 from H irradiated graphite

Thermal desorption of hydrogen molecules from H⁺ irradiated graphite is studied using dynamic Monte Carlo simulation. The purpose of this study is to understand the experimentally observed phenomena that the thermal desorption of H₂ from the graphite exhibits sometimes single desorption peak, sometimes double peaks, and even three desorption peaks under certain circumstances. The study result reveals that the fluence of pre-implanted H⁺, the concentration of trap sites, porosity, and mean crystallite volume are important parameters in determining the number of desorption peaks. It is found that low implantation fluence and high concentration of trap sites easily lead to the occurrence of single desorption peak at around 1000 K, and high implantation fluence and low concentration of trap sites favor the occurrence of double desorption peaks, with a new desorption peak at around 820 K. It is also found that small porosity of graphite and large crystallite volume benefit the occurrence of single desorption peak at around 1000 K while large porosity of graphite and small crystallite volume facilitate the occurrence of double desorption peaks, respectively, at around 820 and 1000 K. In addition, experimentally observed third desorption peak at lower temperature is reproduced by simulation with assuming the graphite containing a small concentration of solute hydrogen atoms.     

高温气冷堆中间换热器层流边界层的传热特性分析

为提高高温气冷堆中间换热器的换热效率,对中间换热器单元流道的层流流动边界层及热边界层进行了理论计算和模拟分析。利用幂次多项式速度分布的方法,对流道内的层流流动边界层和热边界层进行计算,结果表明,三次式的速度分布更为接近Blasius精确解,也更为符合数值模拟的结果。同时,结合不同位置的温度分布,可发现上、下边界层的相遇会使流动进入泊肃叶的抛物线形式,边界层理论继而不再适用。通过模拟还发现,氦气的进口温度和出口压力对于层流边界层的换热基本无影响;恒定热流密度下,壁面温度的变化分为明显的边界层区和泊肃叶区,在这两个区域壁面温度呈线性变化。     

Consequences of delayed air ingress following a depressurization accident in a high temperature reactor

Air ingress is a specific event in a high temperature reactor (HTR). The potential threat posed by air ingress lies in the chemical reaction of oxygen with hot graphite at a temperature above 500 °C leading to reaction heat and graphite corrosion. In order to assess the consequence of air ingress into the reactor, it is postulated that breaks are present above and below the reactor core and that unobstructed ingress of air through them is possible. It is obvious that the air ingress incident has to be preceded by a depressurization accident. For this hypothetical scenario the maximum possible air flow rate through the core resulting solely from the pressure losses in the core is estimated as a function of the break cross-sections exposed above and below the core.In this paper, the thermal behavior of an HTR with prismatic fuel (operating inlet/outlet temperatures 450/850 °C) during air ingress accident conditions has been investigated. In particular, maximum temperatures and burn-off of the fuel and bottom graphite reflector for various air flow rates for the postulated hypothetical scenario have been analyzed. It also indicates the limiting time at which the graphite layer of fuel will be completely burnt-off and the fuel compacts exposed. In addition, the consequences of delayed air ingress after a core heat up following depressurization have been investigated.This paper, thus, throws light on the safety aspects of the new generation HTRs with prismatic fuels (e.g. NGNP/ANTARES) conceived for power generation and process heat application.