Modeling of frost salt scaling

This paper discusses the numerical modeling of deterioration in cement-based materials due to frost salt scaling (FSS). Several aspects of FSS are investigated such as carbonation, microstructure, mechanical properties and testing conditions. Mainly blast-furnace slag cement (henceforth slag cement) systems are of interest in this paper since several reports have been indicated that cementitious materials bearing slag-rich cement are critically vulnerable under combined attack of frost and de-icing salts.In the first part, the paper deals with the effect of carbonation on the micromechanical properties and FSS resistance of 1-year-old slag cement and ordinary Portland cement pastes with W/C 0.45. The micromechanical properties were evaluated by the nano-indentation technique and the results are used to evaluate the behavior of these pastes under frost salt attack. FSS damage on the paste samples is modeled according to the glue-spall theory with the aid of Delft Lattice Model. Additionally, the carbonated cement paste microstructures are characterized by ESEM/BSE.In the second part, parameters that are varied in the investigation are the salt concentration in the external water layer and ice-layer thickness on the surface. Again the lattice type model is used to simulate the mechanism in which the material structure is implemented using digital images of the real material. Both experiments and the simulation with the model show that the amount of scaling increases with increasing thickness of the ice layer on the surface. Furthermore it is shown that with the model the well known pessimum effect for salt concentration in the water (which causes maximum damage at 3% salt) can be reproduced.The outcome of the model indicates that glue-spall theory can successfully explain FSS.     

单氟磷酸钠对天然碳化高炉矿渣砂浆的影响(英文)

研究了10%的单氟磷酸钠溶液作为表面处理剂对碳化高炉矿渣水泥砂浆耐久性的影响。砂浆养护10d后或暴露在自然环境中1a后,进行表面处理,这2种处理方式分别称为前处理与后处理。通常情况下,砂浆在碳化侵蚀后其微观结构被严重破坏。处理后的砂浆经碳化后的微观结构大为改观。试验结果表明:处理后的碳化高炉矿渣水泥砂浆的抗冻融循环能力得到了很大提高。     

自养护路面混凝土抗盐冻性能及疲劳特性

为有效增强路面混凝土耐久性能,基于盐冻试验、盐冻前后的断裂性能试验及弯拉荷载疲劳试验,探索了高吸水性聚合物(SAP)自养护路面混凝土抗盐冻性能及疲劳特性随SAP掺量、粒径的变化规律,并结合自养护水泥浆体孔隙参数、微观形貌及骨料-水泥石界面过渡区(ITZ)特征,揭示了性能影响机理。结果表明:小粒径SAP形成的残留孔洞能有效释放拉应力,降低结冰点,细化孔结构,从而增强路面混凝土抗盐冻性能;当SAP粒径为100目(150 μm),掺量为0.145%(质量分数)时,路面混凝土在冻融30次时的断裂韧度损失率、断裂能损失率分别比基准组降低了25.25%、10.51%;小粒径SAP对疲劳寿命的提升程度随应力水平的提高而增大,当应力水平为0.80时,自养护组的疲劳寿命相比基准组提升了2.65倍;SAP能够有效提升水泥混凝土结构内部密实度,吸持ITZ区域部分水分,增强水泥石和骨料之间的粘结性,从而改善混凝土抗盐冻性能和疲劳特性。     

Internal frost resistance and salt frost scaling of self-compacting concrete

This article outlines laboratory and analytical studies of salt frost scaling and internal frost resistance of self-compacting concrete (SCC) that contains increased amount of filler, different air content, and dissimilar methods of casting. The results were compared with the corresponding properties of normal concrete (NC) with the same water-to-cement ratio (0.39) and air content (6%). The start of the testing was applied at ages of 28 and 90 days. The strength development of the concrete was followed in parallel. Six SCC and two NC were studied. The effects of normal and reversed order of mixing (filler last), increased amount of filler, fineness of filler, limestone powder, increased air content, and large hydrostatic concrete pressure were investigated. The results indicated a substantial improvement of the internal frost resistance of SCC as compared to NC. The salt frost scaling performed more or less in the same way in SCC and in NC. No relationship of frost resistance was found to the air-void structure of the concrete.     

Study on frost resistance of shotcrete by micro-nano bubble water and admixture

Shotcrete was prepared by using micro-nano bubble water as mixing concrete water in cooperation with air-entraining agent (AOS-R) and superabsorbent polymer (SAP), and its frost resistance performance was experimentally studied. The results show that the incorporation of AOS-R and SAP will reduce the 28-day strength of concrete, but MNBW can compensate for the strength loss to a certain extent. The frost resistance of concrete mixed with alkali accelerators is inferior to that of concrete mixed with the alkali-free accelerator. The incorporation of AOS-R or SAP into shotcrete can improve its frost resistance to in some degree as well. Given the frost resistance of concrete mixed with SAP is not as effective as AOS-R, MNBW can play a synergistic effect to improve the frost resistance of concrete. The main reason why the AOS-R improves the frost resistance of concrete is that it generates a large number of small bubbles to isolate the water transmission channel which manage to relieve the crystallization pressure of water. MNBW improves the frost resistance of concrete, because it refines the pore structure and increases the density of concrete.     

磷酸钾镁水泥净浆抗盐冻性能研究

为了研究磷酸钾镁水泥抗盐冻性能,通过测定四种不同冻融介质中磷酸钾镁水泥净浆试件的质量损失、强度、体积变形和表观破坏形态,并与相同龄期的长期浸泡环境下的磷酸钾镁水泥净浆试件比较,借助微观手段研究磷酸钾镁水泥硬化体的物相组成和微结构.结果表明:磷酸钾镁水泥经过400次冻融循环时仍保持质量损失不超过5％、强度损失不超过25％、体积膨胀变形最大为0.275％,具有较好的抗盐冻性.四种冻融介质中,以5％硫酸钠溶液为冻融介质时破坏最严重,可作为评价磷酸钾镁水泥抗盐冻性能好坏的指标.     

Aggregate-cement paste transition zone properties affecting the salt-frost damage of high-performance concretes

The influence of the cement paste-aggregate interfacial transition zone (ITZ) on the frost durability of high-performance silica fume concrete (HPSFC) has been studied. Investigation was carried out on eight non-air-entrained concretes having water-to-binder (W/B) ratios of 0.3, 0.35 and 0.42 and different additions of condensed silica fume. Studies on the microstructure and composition of the cement paste have been made by means of environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM)-BSE, ESEM-EDX and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) analysis. The results showed that the transition zone initiates and accelerates damaging mechanisms by enhancing movement of the pore solution within the concrete during freezing and thawing cycles. Cracks filled with ettringite were primarily formed in the ITZ. The test concretes having good frost-deicing salt durability featured a narrow transition zone and a decreased Ca/Si atomic ratio in the transition zone compared to the bulk cement paste. Moderate additions of silica fume seemed to densify the microstructure of the ITZ.     

Identification of viscoelastic C-S-H behavior in mature cement paste by FFT-based homogenization method

A powerful and robust numerical homogenization method based on fast Fourier transform (FFT) is formulated to identify the viscoelastic behavior of calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) in hardened cement paste from its heterogeneous composition. The identification is contingent upon the linearity of the creep law. To characterize cement paste microstructure, the model developed by Bentz at the National Institute of Standards and Technology, which has the resolution of 1 μm, is adopted. Model B3 for concrete creep is adapted to characterize the creep of C-S-H in cement paste. It is found that the adaptation requires increasing the exponent of power law asymptote of creep compliance. This modification means that the rate of attenuation of creep with time is lower in C-S-H than in cement paste, and is explained by differences in stress redistribution. In cement paste, the stress is gradually transferred from the creeping C-S-H to the non-creeping components. The viscoelastic properties of C-S-H at the resolution of 1 μm were identified from creep experiments on cement pastes 2 and 30 years old, having the water-cement ratio of 0.5. The irreversible part of C-S-H creep, obtained from these old specimens at almost saturated state, is found to be negligible unless the specimens undergo drying and resaturation prior to the creep test.     

Experimental study of the material and bond properties of frost-damaged concrete

In an extensive experimental investigation, several types of tests were conducted on a reference specimen and frost-damaged concrete. Two levels of internal frost damage were quantified by the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity and compressive strength. Test results showed a significant influence of freeze–thaw cycles on the compressive strength and even more influence on the modulus of elasticity and the compressive strain at peak stress. Reduced tensile strength and increased fracture energy were measured. From inverse analysis of wedge splitting test results, a significant effect of frost on the shape of the tensile stress–crack opening relationship was observed: tensile strength was reduced, while the post-peak behaviour was more ductile for the frost-damaged concrete. Pull-out tests showed the influence of freeze–thaw cycles on bond strength and slip. The pull-out test results are compared with similar tests available in the literature and the effect of frost on bond behaviour is discussed.     

碳化钢渣集料制备透水混凝土*

研究用碳化集料代替普通集料,制备透水混凝土。测试碳化钢渣集料的表观密度、堆积密度、压碎指标、针片状含量、孔隙率和吸水率等性能指标,并利用XRD和SEM观测集料表面的矿物组成和微观形貌。按照相应国家标准,设计碳化钢渣集料透水混凝土配比,测试碳化钢渣集料对透水混凝土的抗压强度、孔隙率、透水率及抗冻性的影响,探讨碳化集料在透水混凝土中的适宜替代量。     

Chloride-induced corrosion products of steel in cracked-concrete subjected to different loading conditions

This project focused on examining the composition and distribution of chloride-induced corrosion products at the rebar-concrete interfaces and on crack surfaces in reinforced ordinary Portland cement concrete (OPCC) and high performance concrete (HPC) subjected to different loading conditions. The results indicated that, regardless of the type of loading, there was a larger distribution of corrosion products along the rebar surface in the HPC than in the OPCC. Also, dynamic loading caused a greater detachment of the aggregate-paste bond in OPCC than static loading. The opening and closing of the cracks in salt solution under dynamic load forced corrosion products to flow from the rebar-concrete interface into the cracks in both OPCC and HPC. As a result, corrosion products diffused from the crack into the cement paste in the dynamically loaded OPCC but remained in the cracks in the dynamically loaded HPC, where they induced branched cracks. The mill-scale on the rebar was also evaluated before and after being embedded in concrete and was observed to be porous allowing ingress of species from the cement paste.     

Prediction of diffusivity of concrete based on simple analytic equations

Proposed is a simple analytic model that can predict realistically the diffusivities of concrete and mortar. The basic concept of the model comes from the relation between the diffusivities and the microstructure of concrete. The microstructure that affects the diffusivity includes the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between aggregates and cement pastes as well as the microstructure of cement paste itself. The general effective media (GEM) equation was introduced to derive the diffusivity of cement paste. The effective diffusivity of concrete is derived on the basis of the composite sphere assemblage model, which considers the diffusivities of both ITZ and cement paste. The main parameters in the proposed model are the microstructural properties of cement paste such as capillary porosity and pore structure parameter, solid phase diffusivity, aggregate volume fraction, and interfacial zone properties. To validate the proposed model, many series of concrete and mortar specimens have been tested to measure the diffusivities. The major test variables include the water-to-binder ratios, the types and amount of mineral admixtures on the diffusivities. The effects of compressive strength, water-to-binder ratio, and mineral admixtures have been investigated comprehensively. The comparison of the proposed theory with the test data exhibits reasonably good correlation. The proposed model allows more accurate prediction of diffusion process and, thus, more realistic durability design of concrete structures.     

超硫水泥混凝土抗盐冻性能及提升研究

通过测试不同盐冻循环次数后超硫水泥混凝土的表面剥落质量和超声波相对动弹性模量,并对气泡结构参数进行表征,系统探究了引气剂对超硫水泥混凝土抗盐冻性能的影响规律,以及弱碱性激发剂——乳酸钠对超硫水泥混凝土抗盐冻性能的提升效果。研究结果表明,添加引气剂可有效提高超硫水泥混凝土抗盐冻性能,但会降低强度,复合掺加乳酸钠可避免强度降低。加入胶凝材料质量0.3%的引气剂,剥落质量仅为919.7 g/m²,较基准组降低了36.8%,且超声波相对动弹性模量未明显降低。引气剂的加入,改善了超硫水泥混凝土的气孔结构,降低了内部气孔间距系数和弦长大于100 μm的气孔数占比。这可以减缓冻融作用下内部微裂纹的发展速率,延缓冻融破坏过程。此外,乳酸钠通过促进超硫水泥水化使得混凝土抗盐冻性能得到增强,但提升效果主要体现在测试后期,且对混凝土气孔结构参数影响不大(28 d龄期)。     

盐碱与冻融耦合作用下再生混凝土耐久性试验研究

通过再生混凝土在3.5%NaCl、3.5%Na2SO4、3.5%NaCl+3.5%Na2SO4和水四种溶液中的冻融循环试验,分析再生混凝土在同浓度不同种类盐碱溶液中经过不同冻融次数后(N)的质量变化(△m)和动弹性模量变化(△E) ,绘制N-△m和N-△E的曲线.同时,设置单掺10%、20%粉煤灰和2%、4%硅灰为对照组,研究粉煤灰和硅灰组分别在3.5%NaCl和3.5%Na2SO4环境下混凝土的抗冻性能规律.结果表明:氯盐环境中,随冻融次数的增加,混凝土表面剥削、开裂现象明显,质量和动弹性模量损失严重,而硫酸盐环境中,冻融前期混凝土内部生成水化产物使质量增加,表面膨胀开裂,后期质量和动弹性模量急剧下降,与浓度3.5%氯盐盐冻相比,硫酸盐盐冻动弹性模量损失更大.冻融破坏强度由强到弱排序为氯盐冻、硫酸盐冻、复合盐冻、水冻;掺入粉煤灰后,氯盐环境下的混凝土抗冻性反而下降,10%掺量优于20%掺量.掺入硅灰后,硫酸盐环境下再生混凝土抗冻性提高,破坏程度要比水冻小,4%掺量优于2%掺量;最后分析了混凝土腐蚀机理.     

Measurement methods of carbonation profiles in concrete: Thermogravimetry, chemical analysis and gammadensimetry

This paper deals with two experimental methods to determine carbonation profiles in concrete. Gammadensimetry is a non-destructive test method able to measure the total penetrated CO₂ and to monitor the carbonation process during laboratory accelerated tests. The second method is thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) supplemented with chemical analysis (CA): as TGA is performed on a small mortar sample not representative of the whole tested concrete, CA is needed to proportion the sample cement content, the sand content and to correct the TGA results becoming thus representative of the concrete mix. Consequently, TGA-CA gives accurate quantitative profiles in carbonated cementitious materials. Results are reported for an ordinary Portland cement paste, and three concrete mixes, containing siliceous or calcareous aggregates. The CO₂ mass loss due to carbonation occurs from 530 to 950 °C, which overlaps the temperature range of the calcareous aggregate dissociation. To solve the problem, the origin of CaCO₃ is carefully analyzed. Calcium carbonate ensuing from C-S-H carbonation dissociates in a lower temperature range than the more stable one ensuing from portlandite carbonation and from limestone, which enables C-S-H carbonation to be distinguished from calcareous aggregates. Therefore, TGA-CA allows the CaCO₃ ensuing from C-S-H carbonation to be measured and to calculate the portlandite degraded by carbonation. Thus, the total calcium carbonates profiles can be deduced even when calcareous aggregates is present in the concrete mix.     

Influence of the nature of aggregates on the behaviour of concrete subjected to elevated temperature

An experimental study is carried out on concretes composed of three different types of aggregates: semi crushed silico-calcareous, crushed calcareous and rolled siliceous. For each aggregate type, two water/cement ratios (W/C), 0.6 and 0.3 are studied. Aggregates and concrete specimens were subjected to 300, 600 and 750 °C heating–cooling cycles. We analyse the evolution of thermal, physical and mechanical properties of concrete in terms of behaviour and physical characteristic evolutions of aggregates with temperature. The study of thermal behaviour of aggregates showed the importance of initial moisture state for the flints. The crystallisation and microstructure of quartz play an important role in the thermal stability of siliceous aggregates. The residual mechanical behaviour of concrete varies depending on the aggregate and the influence of aggregates is also dependent on paste composition. This study allowed to better understand the influence of chemical and mineralogical characteristics of aggregates on the thermomechanical behaviour of concrete.     

氯盐侵蚀对再生混凝土多重界面显微结构的影响

通过研究经氯盐侵蚀的再生混凝土不同界面的显微硬度变化,确定不同强度等级再生混凝土不同界面过渡区的范围,研究氯盐侵蚀期对再生混凝土不同界面显微结构的影响规律,揭示了再生混凝土多重界面氯盐侵蚀的劣化机理。研究表明：随着氯盐侵蚀龄期的增长,同强度再生混凝土LG-XJ界面、LJ-XJ界面和LG-LJ界面的显微硬度逐渐降低,过渡区范围逐渐增加。侵蚀龄期为30 d时,C30再生混凝土的LJ-XJ界面过渡区范围几乎无变化;侵蚀龄期为90 d时,C60再生混凝土的LJ-XJ界面过渡区范围变化仍不明显。同强度再生混凝土界面抗氯盐侵蚀性能强弱关系：LJ-XJ界面抗氯盐侵蚀性能>LG-LJ界面抗氯盐侵蚀性能>LG-XJ界面抗氯盐侵蚀性性能。不同氯盐侵蚀龄期的再生混凝土,随着强度等级的提高,LG-XJ界面、LJ-XJ界面和LG-LJ界面的显微硬度与过渡区范围以及水泥浆体本身的显微硬度改变的幅度都有不同程度的降低。     

Effect of the variations of clinker composition on the poroelastic properties of hardened class G cement paste

The effect of the variations of clinker composition on the poroelastic properties of class G oil-well cement pastes is studied using a multiscale homogenization model. The model has been calibrated in a previous work based on the results of a laboratory study. Various compositions of class G cements from literature are used in a hydration model to evaluate the volume fractions of the microstructure constituents of hardened cement paste. The poroelastic parameters such as drained bulk modulus, Biot coefficient, and Skempton coefficient are evaluated using the homogenization model. The results show that the variations in chemical composition of class G cements have no important effect on the variations of the poroelastic properties.     

Comparison between surface and bulk hydrophobic treatment against corrosion of galvanized reinforcing steel in concrete

The effectiveness of bulk hydrophobic treatment against corrosion of galvanized steel reinforcement in concrete specimens with w/c = 0.45 and w/c = 0.75 was compared with that of surface treatment, even in the presence of cracks 0.5 and 1 mm wide in the concrete cover. In this case surface hydrophobic treatments were applied both before and after cracking as a preventive and a restorative method against reinforced concrete deterioration, respectively. The obtained results in terms of water absorption, electrochemical measurements, chlorides penetration, and visual observations carried out on reinforced concrete specimens during the exposure to wet–dry cycles in 10% NaCl solution showed that bulk hydrophobization is the most effective treatment in improving the corrosion resistance of galvanized steel reinforcements in concrete also in the presence of cracks. Surface hydrophobization is very effective just in the first few exposure cycles to the aggressive environment and when used as a restorative method which is able to cancel the deleterious effect of cracks only 0.5 mm wide.     

Surface and internal deterioration of concrete due to saline and non-saline freeze-thaw loads

Concrete deterioration due to frost action in non-saline and saline environments was studied statistically. The most significant variables affecting the freeze-thaw durability of concrete were calculated statistically and contours of estimated response surface were produced. Water-cement ratio and air content of the concretes were the most dominant variables affecting the internal and surface damage caused by the freezing and thawing loads. In the non-saline environment, water curing improved the R² values of the developed deterioration models in the surface scaling part of the tests. In the internal damage tests, the curing measures did not improve the statistical relevancy of the estimated response surfaces. In the saline freeze-thaw tests, high-strength concretes were studied. When water-binder ratio was below 0.42 internal deterioration was the governing freeze-thaw damage mechanism which needed larger air content compared to surface scaling.