Solar drying in sludge management in Turkey

Two main wastewater treatment plants in Bursa city in Turkey will start to operate and produce at least 27,000 tons of dry solids per year by the end of 2006. The purpose of this study was to investigate an economical solution to the sludge management problem that Bursa city would encounter. The general trend in Turkey is mechanical dewatering to obtain a dry solid (DS) content of 20%, and liming the mechanically dewatered sludge to reach the legal landfilling requirement, 35% DS content. This study recommends limited liming & solar drying as an alternative to only-liming the mechanically dewatered sludge. Open and covered solar sludge drying plants were constructed in pilot scale for experimental purposes. Dry solids and climatic conditions were constantly measured. Faecal coliform reduction was also monitored. The specially designed covered solar drying plant proved to be more efficient than the open plant in terms of drying and faecal coliform reduction. It was found that, if the limited liming & solar drying method was applied after mechanical dewatering instead of only-liming method, the total amount of the sludge to be disposed would be reduced by approximately 40%. This would lead to a reduction in the transportation, handling, and landfilling costs. The covered drying system would amortize itself in 4 years.     

Solar drying of wastewater sludge: A review

Drying constitutes an important process for wastewater sludge management, as it can reduce the mass and the volume of the product and consequently the cost of storage, handling and transport. During constant operating conditions, the drying kinetic of the sludge has shown mainly: a constant drying rate, one or two falling rate periods and a final short period with variations along the process of the physical properties of the product with the appearance of shrinkage and cracks phenomena. Solar drying was benefit as using free solar energy can reduce the cost of the operation. On the other hand, it plays an important role for the pathogen reduction until Environmental protection Agency (EPA) recommendations. In some studied cases, the value of 1000 CFU g⁻¹ DS, which represents the EPA Class A pathogen requirement, for fecal coliform was attained. The general design of used solar dryers was constituted of: a greenhouse made with transparent material and a floor, where the product is speared in thick layers. Furthermore, fans and ventilations can be used in order to have homogeneous distribution of the air inside the greenhouse with replacement of humidified air with fresh one. Automatic or handle mix of the product was used once or for several times a day. In order to increase the performances of the drying system, other ways such as heating the floor using solar water heater, infrared lamps, using heat pumps or adding thermal energy storage systems were also tested. Covered solar drying has given better results than open solar drying. However, the origin of the wastewater sludge affects the obtained results. Alternatively, modeling drying systems was effectuated using heat and mass balances, applied for the air and the dried product. Solar drying of wastewater sludge has given satisfactory results.     

Solar energy resource assessment — Brazil

Appropriate information on solar resources is very important for a variety of technological areas, such as: agriculture, meteorology, forestry engineering, water resources and particularly for an innovating technology such as solar energy. In the market entry process of an innovating technology such as solar energy, the enlarged and sustained reproduction of this energy strongly depends on the economy and reliability of the demonstrative solar systems installed (within a restricted or wide scale). The economy and reliability of a system are the consequence of a well-prepared project, resulting from an accurate knowledge of the solar resource available. Therefore, knowing the potential of the solar resource accurately is not only a need, it is also an imperative for a larger diffusion and use of the solar energy.The existing sources of information on radiation in Brazil are quite varied, both at the institutional level and in different types of publications. At the institutional level these sources are: the National Institute of Meteorology, secretary of agriculture, research centers, universities, and electric power generating and distributing companies, among others. The publications with this information are project reports, internal reports of institutions or several magazines. Thus, the quality of the data varies considerably, the information presents spatial and temporal discontinuity and the instruments as well as the measurement units are not standardized.The general objective of this paper is to recover, qualify, standardize and make available the best information from the current existing solar resource in Brazil, either in the form of isoline charts of solar radiation, insolation, numeric tables or analytic summaries of a great part of the publications on the theme over the last forty years.     

On the clear sky model of the ESRA — European Solar Radiation Atlas — with respect to the heliosat method

This paper presents a clear-sky model, which has been developed in the framework of the new digital European Solar Radiation Atlas (ESRA). This ESRA model is described and analysed with the main objective of being used to estimate solar radiation at ground level from satellite images with the Heliosat method. Therefore it is compared to clear-sky models that have already been used in the Heliosat method. The diffuse clear-sky irradiation estimated by this ESRA model and by other models has been also checked against ground measurements, for different ranges of the Linke turbidity factor and solar elevation. The results show that the ESRA model is the best one with respect to robustness and accuracy. The r.m.s. error in the estimation of the hourly diffuse irradiation ranges from 11 Wh m⁻² to 35 Wh m⁻² for diffuse irradiation up to 250 Wh m⁻². The good results obtained with such a model are due to the fact that it takes into account the Linke turbidity factor and the elevation of the site, two factors that influence the incoming solar radiation. In return, it implies the knowledge of these factors at each pixel of the satellite image for the application of the Heliosat method.     

Experimental studies of low-temperature drying by dehumidification. Part 2—Experimental

Experiments are described in which several different types of cycles and dryers are compared, and it is shown that the best performance, in terms of both drying time and energy saving, is achieved by a recirculating cycle with a hybrid dryer with a heat pump dehumidifier and supplementary resistance heating.     

Solar Energy—Continuing progress

The reduction of measured diffuse irradiance due to the use of a shadowband is evaluated. For cloudless sky, an exact mathematical model was developed. Measurements throughout the year confirm the model results. The values are close to the semiempirical model developed by Drummond only during noon hours. Towards morning and afternoon a contribution from reflected direct solar irradiance from inside the shadowband reduces the loss and, at very low sun angle, can even provide a gain in the measured diffuse irradiance. The albedo of the inner band surface is of importance for the amount of this gain.During overcast sky the loss of measured diffuse irradiance varies with the season: During the winter months when only a small section of the sky is obstructed by band, 3 per cent are lost, during summer this value is between 8 and 10 per cent.     

污泥太阳能干燥试验研究

一前言城市生活污水在处理过程中产生了大量的污泥,据不完全统计,目前全国污水处理厂每年排放湿污泥500万吨以上,干重超过100万吨。随着我国污水处理设施的普及、处理率的提高,产生的污泥量将继续增大。目前污泥的主要处置方法有农用、填埋和焚烧。大量未经稳定化、无害化处理的污泥已成为污水处理厂的沉重负担,同时也对环境产生了二次污染。     

Solar cells—A technology assessment

After a brief introduction including an analysis of limits on solar-cell conversion efficiencies and their dependence on temperature and light intensity, the bulk of this review deals with an extensive analysis of present and future solar-cell technologies. The three established technologies of Si cells, cells and GaAs cells are thoroughly examined in terms of manufacturing processes, advantages, disadvantages, efficiencies, applications and further reading. Several emerging technologies are then treated including the heat exchange method (HEM), the edge-defined film-fed growth (EFG) ribbon process, the dendritic web growth process, advanced Czochralski processes, alternative methods of fabricating cells from single-crystal Si such as ion implantation and MIS junctions, polycrystalline Si cells, amorphous Si cells, cells, GaAs cells and photoelectrochemical cells. In each case prospects for commercial development are assessed. Advanced concepts such as multi-junction cells, emerging semiconductor materials and organic cells are treated briefly. Concentrator systems and cells designed specifically for high light levels are analyzed and assessed as to commercial viability. Finally, the technology assessment is summarized in terms of ten specific points.     

Solar radiation models—A review

Solar radiation models for predicting the average daily and hourly global radiation, beam radiation and diffuse radiation on horizontal surface are reviewed in this article. Estimations of monthly average hourly global radiation from daily summations are discussed. It was observed that Collares‐Pereira and Rabl model as modified by Gueymard (CPRG) yielded the best performance for estimating mean hourly global radiation incident on a horizontal surface for Indian regions. Estimations of monthly average hourly beam and diffuse radiation are discussed. It was observed that Singh‐Tiwari and Jamil‐Tiwari both models generally give better results for climatic conditions of Indian regions. Therefore, their use is recommended for composite climate of Indian regions. Empirical correlations developed to establish a relationship between the hourly diffuse fraction and the hourly clearness index using hourly global and diffuse irradiation measurements on a horizontal surface are discussed. Fifty models using the Angstrom–Prescott equation to predict the average daily global radiation with hours of sunshine are considered. It was reported that Ertekin and Yaldiz model showed the best performance against measured data of Konya, Turkey. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Experimental studies of low-temperature drying by dehumidification. Part 1—Apparatus and theory

The feasibility of using a heat pump is considered as an alternative to other forms of drying where low temperature drying of a substance is necessary, either through quality control or because of inherent vulnerability to higher temperatures. This paper describes the construction and instrumentation of a purpose-built dryer, using uniformly saturated cotton as a constant drying load. The machine incorporates both a heat pump cycle using R12 refrigerant and also controllable electrical resistance heaters. A liquid-line subcooler is included to remove heat from the system. Instrumentation includes measurements of wet and dry bulb temperature, refrigerant temperature and pressure, air and refrigerant flow rates, and thermal and electrical energy. Drying rate is monitored by weighing samples.     

超声波预处理对污泥干燥速率影响研究

在超声波预处理污泥干燥实验基础上,分析了超声波预处理技术对污泥干燥速率的影响,并对污泥干燥过程进行了指数拟合,结果表明.超声波预处理能有效提高污泥干燥效率,其改善的程度取决于不同的实验条件;超声波预处理能够加速表面自由水分蒸发和快速结束污泥恒速干燥阶段;增大超声波功率可以更好地改善污泥的干燥特性,但改善的程度随着十燥时间的延长而放缓;超声波处理时间过长可能会增大污泥的黏度,反而不利于污泥脱水干燥.     

Solar cookers—part-II—cooking vessel with central annular cavity

Cooking vessels used in a solar cooker must be able to transfer the heat trapped in the cooker effectively to the food material. In the preceding paper (Part-I) the advantage of keeping the vessel on lugs was discussed. In the current paper the performance of a cooking vessel with a central annular cavity kept on lugs is discussed. The experiments were conducted for several days using water and thermic fluid as working medium. The studies indicated that the cooking vessel with central annular cavity on lugs performs much better than the conventional vessel kept on the floor of the cooker. The conventional vessel is considered to be the benchmark for the purposes of comparison.     

Solar box-cooker: Part I—Modeling

Thermal models for the solar box-cookers loaded with one, two, or four vessels have been presented. The method of Taha and Eldighidy has been utilized to estimate the enhanced solar irradiance on the cooker due to the flat reflector fitted to the cooker. The coupling of the Taha and Eldighidy method with the thermal models yielded the models for the box-cookers. A great many transfer coefficients and view factors are required as the model inputs. The methods for their estimation are given. Analysis of the transfer processes, computer simulation of the cooker, and experimental data on some of the coefficients, which are peculiar to the cooker and not available in the literature are presented in the companion paper.     

A 3‐D numerical heat and mass transfer model for simulating the vibration effects on drying process

The high‐energy costs in the drying process highlight the employment of vibration which is a promising way to intensify this process. This work presents a three‐dimensional (3‐D) numerical version that exhibits the coupled heat and mass transfer phenomena posed by the external vibrating flow of hot air during the drying process. In order to simulate 3‐D vibrating drying, a 3‐D unstructured control volume finite element method is developed to analyze the heat and mass transfer during unsaturated porous media drying. Numerical simulation results, which depict the effects of the external vibrating flow which forces the drying process to occur more rapidly and intensively than ever before, are presented and analyzed.     

桨叶式干燥机污泥干燥试验研究

介绍了桨叶式干燥机的特点及应用于污泥干燥的试验情况、优缺点及应用展望，分析了污泥在干燥机内的运动和干燥效果。认为桨叶式干燥机的结构设计符合污泥干燥的要求。     

太阳辐射强度对污泥干燥特性的影响

采用敞口型、温室型、温室-集热型3种干燥装置,研究了污泥在不同太阳辐射强度下的含水率变化,结果显示,太阳能干燥污泥的传热机理主要是太阳微波辐射及空气对流换热,干燥过程存在初始、增速、恒速、降速4个区别明显的阶段,并且空气流速对干燥过程的影响权重大于空气温度。当平均太阳辐射强度大于620W/m2时,能在180 min内将污泥的含水率降到38%以下;大于900 W/m2时,含水率能在120 min内降至38%。研究使用Logarithmic模型,建立了仅含太阳辐射强度S、干燥时间τ两种变量的干燥特性方程,简化了污泥干燥一般规律的预测计算。模型计算结果和实验值吻合较好,误差小于3.9%。     

入炉污泥含水率对污泥干化焚烧工艺影响研究

以上海某污水处理厂为例,通过理论计算和工程设计分析,研究了入炉污泥含水率(质量分数)对污泥干化焚烧工艺的影响.结果表明,随着干化程度的提高,对干燥机处理能力的要求提高,对干燥机型式的选择余地缩小,对焚烧炉、余热锅炉等设备的要求也将提高,对设备材质、系统安装、运行管理的要求也将相应提高.随着污泥干化程度的降低,进料量和烟气量增大,导致焚烧和烟气处理设备体积庞大.由于污泥泥质特性随时间变化大,在污泥热值整体偏低的地区,采用60%入炉污泥含水率存在一定的风险.污泥入炉含水率对污泥焚烧处理工程中的工艺选择及布置影响较大,工程设计中不应简单照搬国内外类似工程,而应根据当地污泥泥质特性、热值、辅助热源等实际情况,合理选择入炉污泥含水率.     

Solar energy development in China—A review

The steady and maintainable electric power provides the development momentum of a country's industrialization, which is indispensable to every country at present. It is well known that China is the largest developing country in the world. With the rapid development of economy and society, energy demand of Chinese society is increasing in an incredible speed, i.e., the annual accumulative total capacity of electric energy is about 0.1 billion kW, and the most of them is provided by the fossil fuel resource, and the share is about 90% in China. Certainly, it is a very inappropriate energy structure, so the sustainable development of country is impossible in future, the status must be improved in order to achieve sustainable development. Fortunately, China has large country area, and there are abundant solar resources. Development and application of solar energy have been regarded by the government and ordinary people, and they thought that solar energy can provide more and more electric energy in future, and more and more actual examples have been applied in the last decades, which are supported by central government and local governments. This paper discusses the distribution zone and current developmental situation of solar energy in China. Then, some application practice is described, such as solar energy greenhouse, solar energy hearth, solar water heater, solar lighting system, solar water pump, distributed generation (DG), grid-connect photovoltaic generation (GPG) and wind–solar hybrid system. The policies and law of China central government and local governments are described in the following paragraph. At the end, the developmental prospect of photovoltaic (PV) in future China and the development barriers and recommendations are introduced.