Towards integrated catchment management: opening the paradigm locks between hydrology,ecology and policy‐making

A recently launched international initiative on “Hydrology for the Environment, Life and Policy” (HELP) aims at a science‐based approach to integrated catchment management, and in particular to facilitating the dialogue needed between scientists, stakeholders and policy makers. The ultimate challenge of a sustainability‐oriented environmental management is to find the proper balance between humans and the impacts that their activities cause to ecosystems. This makes the catchment a useful landscape unit for an integrated approach where a balancing between humans and nature can be carried out. The catchment can be seen as containing two mosaics, one of human water‐related activities and the other of water‐dependent ecosystems, terrestrial as well as aquatic. These two mosaics are internally linked by water flows but partly incompatible. Therefore, a management task is to orchestrate the catchment for compatibility, which will demand intentional trade‐offs. Past water management policy has often been based on outdated knowledge and technology, for instance by a ‘paradigm lock’ between scientists and stakeholders, isolating them from each other: scientists by the lack of proven utility of their findings, and stakeholders by legal and professional precedence and disaggregated institutions. The HELP initiative encourages the water policy, water resources management and scientific communities to work together within a field‐oriented context so that science may be closely integrated with policy and management needs.     

莱茵河水资源国际合作治理困境与突破

为探索莱茵河流域沿岸国家如何突破水资源合作治理的集体行动难题,分析了合作过程中存在的治理困境和关键性因素。莱茵河流域水污染问题从普通环境问题上升为国际政治议题进而成为沿岸国家的政治承诺,经历了利益相关者相互抗衡与博弈的漫长过程,经济发展与环境保护之间的权衡、外部性问题和不确定性带来的高成本成为实现合作难以突破的困境,问题压力程度、非政府行动者参与程度、制度弹性、社会政治经济同质性、社会资本存量等是突破合作困境的关键性要素。我国在跨界流域水资源的利用、开发和治理中应注重建立对话沟通机制,提供合作平台,培养互信关系;提倡多中心的制度安排,保持制度弹性;加强水质监控和预警网络建设;引导公众参与,发挥公众监督作用。     

Contribution to decision‐making on establishing the maximum water level for Lake Vegoritida

The water level in Lake Vegoritida, Greece, has undergone great changes over the past decades attributable to severe water abstraction directly from the lake and its catchment, which affected not only the conditions of the natural environment, but also social and economic conditions. The water level of the lake is currently rising, with discussion of an agreeable decision about the desired maximum lake water level becoming a source of conflict among the lake stakeholders. The present study provides a framework for a participatory management plan, with the perspective of engaging all levels of lake stakeholders in the process of deciding and establishing the maximum lake water level. Kolb's learning cycle is used as a methodological vehicle in the proposed process of participatory decision‐making. Its contribution to decision‐making includes (a) identification of lake stakeholders and the issues arising from a potential establishment of a maximum lake water level; and (b) three suggested water level scenarios to facilitate a future constructive discussion directed to establishing a maximum water level in Lake Vegoritida.     

System Dynamics Analysis for Managing Iran’s Zayandeh-Rud River Basin

Within river basins different social, economic, political and physical subsystems interact. When making decisions, policy makers should be aware of such interactions as any new policy will affect more than one subsystem. To determine the adequacy of a specific management policy, an integrated study is needed of a complicated water management system in the basin considering major physical, social, economic and political aspects. The Zayandeh-Rud river basin, in central Iran with a semi-arid climate and large agricultural, industrial and domestic water uses, is an example of a complicated watershed system where the lack of complete knowledge about all the interacting subsystems has led to failure of the policy makers in addressing the water shortage in the basin. Although water shortages occur fairly soon after completion of each new water source, transbasin water diversion is still the major policy of water planners to address ongoing shortages. System dynamics provides a unique framework for integrating the disparate physical, socio-economic and political systems important to watershed management. This approach is used to comprehend the interactions of different drivers of the problem and to convey the experiences, lessons learned, and perceptions gained during the model development process. A simulation model, built based on causal loop diagrams of the problem, shows that transbasin diversion is not the best and only solution to the problem. The results of the model for different scenarios suggest that various options of demand management and population control can be more effective in addressing the water crisis of the basin when combined with transbasin water diversions, increasing water storage capacity and controlling of groundwater withdrawal.     

Interaction between Stakeholders and Research for Integrated River Basin Management

Integrated Water Management calls for basin-wide coordination of activities related to land and water use. The need for multi-stakeholder involvement, the necessity to integrate scientific approaches and local information, the process of mutual communication, the results of discussions on integrated water and river management at the basin scale and decisions for further action are reviewed and illustrated. In the Pantanal, Brazil, stakeholders have had an essential role in developing knowledge for decision-making in river management. Integrated knowledge was generated by combining different types of scientific knowledge with visions, information and solutions developed in cooperation with local, regional and national stakeholders. The process showed that this integrated knowledge was essential for involvement of stakeholders in problem formulation, identification of solutions and decision-making on preferred developments. Stakeholders have helped to direct the research process by bringing in ideas about causes and solutions and adding local and regional knowledge to the research process. Once involved in the process, stakeholders took on board new ideas and visions, and were critical about solutions. Research is important in gaining insight in complex processes (climate, hydrology, geology, ecosystems and politics); stakeholders display a wide knowledge of the regional history that generally is not documented and inaccessible to scientists. The conclusion is that cooperation between stakeholders and researchers in this case has started a chain of actions that is still continuing.     

Computer Support for Implementation of a Systemic Approach to Water Conflict Resolution

Abstract

Water is an important factor in conflicts among stakeholders at the local, regional, and even international level. Water conflicts have taken many forms, but they almost always arise from the fact that the freshwater resources of the world are not partitioned to match the political borders, nor are they evenly distributed in space and time. Two or more countries share the watersheds of 261 major rivers and nearly half of the land area of the world is in international river basins. Water has been used as a military and political goal. Water has been a weapon of war, and water systems have been targets during the war. A systemic approach has been taken in this research to approach resolution of conflicts over water. By helping stakeholders to explore and resolve the underlying structural causes of conflict our approach offers a significant opportunity for its resolution. We define the five main functional activities for assisting the conflict resolution process as: (i) communication; (ii) problem formulation; (iii) data gathering and information generation; (iv) information sharing; and (v) evaluation of consequences. A computerized technical support is developed in the form of the Conflict Resolution Support System (CRSS) for implementation of a systemic approach to water conflicts. Its principal components include an artificial intelligence-based communication system, a database management system, and a model base management system. At this stage of the development, the model base management system consists of tools for multipurpose reservoir operation, river flow routing, multi-criteria decision-making, spatial data analysis, and other general utilities. A hypothetical river basin with potential conflict between stakeholders with respect to water sharing and flood control is used to demonstrate the utility of the new approach and the computer system developed for its implementation.     

Sustainable Urban Water System Transitions Through Management Reforms in Ghana

Despite decades of water reforms, Ghana’s struggle to achieve sustainable urban water system is deepened by complex interactions of multi-layered political, socio-economic and managerial characteristics, leaving a rationing system of water supply in major cities like Accra. Using a multi-level perspective framework, the paper examines the dynamics of urban water system transition through management reforms. The study showed how external pressure at the landscape level influenced policy direction within urban water regime through the implementation of neo-liberal economic policies, paving way for resistance and grassroots innovation at the niche level. The implementation of such policies in the reform process did little to help achieve the desired sustainable urban water system goals. The paper suggests a blend of public and private financing with support for grassroots to improve urban water system management. However, subsequent urban water policy reforms must be informed by knowledge of social, economic, and political realities rather than imported generic “best policies and practices” that often conflict with local realities.     

Environmental Flows in a Human‐Dominated System: Integrated Water Management Strategies for the Rio Grande/Bravo Basin

Water management in the transboundary Rio Grande/Bravo (RGB) Basin, shared by the US and Mexico, is complicated by extreme hydrologic variability, overallocation, and international treaty obligations. Heavy regulation of the RGB has degraded binationally protected ecosystems along the Big Bend Reach of the RGB. This study addresses the need for integrated water management in Big Bend by developing an alternative reservoir operation policy to provide environmental flows while reducing water management trade‐offs. A reach‐scale water planning model was used to represent historical hydrology (1955–2009), water allocation, and reservoir operations, and key human water management objectives (water supply, flood control, and binational treaty obligations) were quantified. Spatially distributed environmental flow objectives and an alternative reservoir rule curve were developed. We simulated current and alternative water management policies and used an iterative simulation–evaluation process to evaluate alternative policies based on water system performance criteria with respect to specified objectives. A single optimal policy was identified that maximized environmental flows while maintaining specified human objectives. By changing the timing but not the volume of releases, the proposed reservoir re‐operation policy has the potential to sustain key ecological and geomorphic functions in Big Bend without significantly impacting current water management objectives. The proposed policy also improved water supply provisions, reduced average annual flood risk, and maintained historical treaty provisions. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Added Value of Understanding Informal Social Networks in an Adaptive Capacity Assessment: Explorations of an Urban Water Management System in Indonesia

Social networks play an important role in environmental governance regimes, and they are a key to the adaptive capacity of systems that deal with complex, contextual and multi-faceted issues. Urban water systems are typical examples of complex systems facing many pressures, such as increased population, water quality deterioration, and climate change. This paper explores social networks of the key stakeholders engaged in urban water management, in Makassar City, Indonesia, in the context of exploring ways to improve management of an increasingly complex urban water system. Three social networks were explored; those constituted by formal and informal interactions and networks perceived by stakeholders to be “ideal”. Formal networks were identified through an examination of the legislative instruments and government agencies’ documents relating to water provision in Makassar, while the informal and “ideal” networks were investigated in collaboration with the stakeholders. The research found that the informal social network was more extensive than were the formally required networks, and the investigation of informal networks created a potentially more robust and adaptive water management system than would have occurred through inclusion of formal institutional arrangements. We suggest that in examination of the adaptive capacity of an urban water system, one also considers the informal arrangements and linkages, as this additional information about the system is necessary to enhance our understanding of potential adaptation of water management and improved urban water systems.     

Socio‐economic and institutional assessment of Malaysia's first biosphere reserve: Chini Lake

Despite being designated the first UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in Malaysia, the Chini Lake Basin experiences continuing management challenges attributable to existing sectoral management practices and differences in demands of multiple stakeholders. Accordingly, a socio‐economic survey and stakeholder consultative process were undertaken, involving relevant stakeholders in the lake basin. The consultative process involved: (a) identification and prioritization of relevant stakeholders; (b) assessment of their socio‐economic activities and perceptions; (c) organization of focus group discussions between basin stakeholders; and (d) development of management recommendations in collaboration with stakeholders. The results of this study indicated the local community's way of living has changed from traditional occupations to a wage economy. Overlapping functions and lack of communication were among the major identified challenges facing by Chini Lake. Multiple strategies were proposed to promote environmental protection and good governance of Chini Lake, including formation of special area plans and strengthening institutional arrangements to sustainably manage the Chini Lake catchment. An effective authority also is necessary to improve communication and coordination of programmes by the various basin agencies and communities.     

Shipping water across the US–Mexico border: international governance dimensions of desalination for export

New public–private desalination projects along the Mexico–United States boundary have the potential to strengthen water security in this arid region. International bulk water commerce in this region is unprecedented and constrained by existing international agreements and regulations. This problem is examined from a multilevel governance perspective, focusing on two desalination projects with near-term export potential in Rosarito, Baja California, and Puerto Peñasco, Sonora. These projects add to the array of agencies and procedures in binational water management but will not displace the International Boundary and Water Commission, which is sure to have a role in managing such projects.     

The Australian Water Market Experiment

Abstract

Intra-country and international water trading is being discussed widely as the limits of utilizing water resources become apparent. The establishment of a water market in Australia involved government policy, institutional management, the nature of a common resource, the environmental and economic consequences of privatization, and an assessment of social costs and benefits. In essence, it provides a case study in the potential of water trading and the political differences that may have to be reconciled if such a market is to operate in a socially equitable and environmentally sustainable manner     

Using decision analysis to collaboratively respond to invasive species threats: A case study of Lake Erie grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)

Decisions about invasive species control and eradication can be difficult because of uncertainty in population demographics, movement ecology, and effectiveness of potential response actions. These decisions often include multiple stakeholders and management entities with potentially different objectives, management priorities, and jurisdictional authority. We provide a case study of using multi-party, collaborative decision analysis to aid decision makers in determining objectives and control actions for invasive grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) in Lake Erie. Creating this process required binational (Canada-United States) and multi-state/provincial collaboration to craft a shared problem statement, establish objectives related to ecological, economic, and social concerns, determine potential response actions, and evaluate consequences and tradeoffs of these actions. We used participatory modeling and expert elicitation to evaluate the effectiveness of control scenarios that varied in action type (i.e., removal efforts and spawning barriers) and the temporal and spatial application of these actions. Using a matrix population model parameterized for western Lake Erie grass carp, we found that removal efforts concentrated in areas of high catchability, when paired with a spawning barrier on the Sandusky River, Ohio, USA, could effectively control grass carp in Lake Erie, if all assumptions are met. We determined a set of key uncertainties regarding gear catchability and current population size that have led to the transition to an adaptive management process. In addition, our work formed the basis for grass carp management plans for the states of Michigan and Ohio and has provided a means for collaboration among agencies for effective application of control efforts.     

Transforming River Basin Management in South Africa

Abstract

This paper analyzes the transformation of river basin management in South Africa by focusing on the political processes involved in the creation of new water management bodies and irrigation infrastructure in the Lower Komati sub-basin. Institutional reform is described and analyzed in terms of the collaboration theory of Gray (1985). Attention is paid to the absence of mutual collaboration in the water domain through the analysis of three phases that are characteristic of collaborative management: problem setting, direction setting, and structuring. The perceptions and strategies of stakeholders in the change process are informed by the skewed access to land and water, the protracted struggle for redress of historical inequities, the quest for autonomy in water management by commercial farmers, and large political power differentials. This has resulted in differential access to decision making and political influence and in the materialization of these skewed relations in water control technology. The reluctance of stakeholders to explicitly recognize their interdependence and the role of the state as the convener of the change process has hampered the emergence of a shared appreciation of the problems in the water domain. Despite efforts by government to move towards equitable and inclusive water management, little redress of past inequities has taken place, and the majority of small farmers are uninformed and excluded from the change process. This suggests that the proposed Catchment Management Agency will not be representative nor attain equitable water management unless a well-conceived redistribution of water entitlements and land rights is carried out as part of an encompassing program to strengthen political democracy.     

A Framework for an Agent-Based Model to Manage Water Resources Conflicts

Competition for use of water is increasing and leads to many conflicts among competing interests with complex goals and water management systems. Technical system models are essential to create performance and other decision information, but models to simulate views of the competing parties are also needed to help resolve or mitigate conflicts. Agent-based models (ABMs) offer promise to fill this role, and in this study a new approach to agent-based modeling is introduced to simulate the behavior and interactions of the parties participating in a conflict scenario, which is modeled as a game. To develop this framework, we considered water issues of California’s Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta region as an example of a long-standing situation, with emphasis on the San Joaquin watershed. However, this approach can be used in other watersheds and more complex systems. The ABM explains the interactions among the parties and how they can be encouraged to cooperate in the game to work toward a solution. The model also enables decision-makers to test management scenarios and understand the consequences of their decisions on different stakeholders and their behaviors.     

Workshop 1 (synthesis): multipurpose stream management strategies.

For a meaningful dialogue on balancing water uses between stakeholders in a river basin, adequate information and proper understanding, knowledge and access to reliable data are essential for all parties. Technological and economic components in water resources management have limited significance without the social context, and the legal framework plays a key role in the dialogue between stakeholders at all levels. Other aspects that fit into strategic planning and management of water resources projects are risk assessment, ecosystem requirements, credibility and trust building.     

Water and democracy: new roles for civil society in water governance

In most democratic countries, government officials make water-allocation decisions. Citizens depend on these officials and their technical advisors to take account of both technical and political considerations in determining which water uses get priority, what infrastructure investments to make and what water quality standards to apply. In many parts of the world, water users and stakeholders have additional opportunities to comment on such decisions before they are implemented. Under some circumstances, citizens can challenge water management decisions in court. This is not enough. More direct democracy, involving stakeholders before such decisions are made, can produce fairer and increasingly sustainable results. The steps in collaborative adaptive management – a form of stakeholder engagement particularly appropriate to managing complex water networks – are described in this article along with the reasons that traditional forms of representative democracy are inadequate when it comes to water policy.     

Experiences From Indonesia and Malaysia

Abstract

Indonesia and Malaysia are facing serious political and economic problems. In that context, both countries also are striving to implement sustainable water management practices. Selected initiatives of water management from both countries are described and analyzed. The implications of their experiences are considered with reference to concepts of integrated management, participation of users and stakeholders, environmental protection, impacts of water policy, capacity building, external assistance, and emergencies and conflict reduction.     

INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SENEGAL RIVER

ABSTRACT

This paper looks at the main political factors that were instrumental in design and implementation of the Diama and Manantali dams on the Senegal River. The rationale for making use of the valuable international resource is undermined by the political concessions, compromises, and accommodation the basin states and the donors who finance the projects need to make to sustain international cooperation among the three participating basin states of Mali, Mauritania and Senegal. At best there is an over-investment in physical works and at worst the dam projects are unnecessary at this time and will be an economic and social disaster. Planning of the projects was backwards in that it was oriented towards justifying a political decision made as long ago as 1962. While the river program is uneconomic and a number of the funding agencies were dissatisfied with parts or even all of it, the basin states, nevertheless, succeeded in obtaining the necessary concessionary finance by playing one donor off against another, with limited effect by controlling the type of technical information produced, and more successfully by taking political initiatives to circumvent the technical funding process and exploiting the political sympathies of the donor country political leaders.     

Towards integrated catchment management: increasing the dialogue between scientists,policy‐makers and stakeholders

The aim of the Hydrology for the Environment, Life and Policy (HELP) project is to strengthen the role and inputs of the scientific community in the integrated catchment management process. Water resources management in the 21st century requires a radical reorientation and an effective dialogue between decision‐makers, stakeholders and the scientific water community. This paper offers a skeleton worldview as a starting point for that dialogue by bringing together key issues as identified by water resource experts from different disciplines. Experiences from all over the world demonstrate the need for multistakeholder advocacy and the importance of compromise‐building mechanisms. Water law defines the rules of the game and provides a necessary framework for policy and its execution. However, there must be adequate social acceptance and active compliance, otherwise the formal rules and administrative regulation will not be perceived as legitimate and ultimately could prove ineffective. The challenge now is to create management systems where the formal decision‐makers interact with relevant members of the scientific community, users and other stakeholders for a coordinated approach that successfully orchestrates water uses towards internal compatibility. Integrated water resources management is essential for securing a proper overview of all the activities that depend on the same resource—the precipitation over the basin—and which are internally linked by the mobility of water from the water divide to the river mouth.