Radionuclides in primary coolant of a fluoride salt-cooled high-temperature reactor during normal operation

The release of fission products from coated particle fuel to primary coolant,as well as the activation of coolant and impurities,were analysed for a fluoride saltcooled high-temperature reactor (FHR) system,and the activity of radionuclides accumulated in the coolant during normal operation was calculated.The release rate (release fraction per unit time) of fission products was calculated with STACY code,which is modelled mainly based on the Fick's law,while the activation of coolant and impurities was calculated with SCALE code.The accumulation of radionuclides in the coolant has been calculated with a simplified model,which is generally a time integration considering the generation and decay of radionuclides.The results show that activation products are the dominant gamma source in the primary coolant system during normal operation of the FHR while fission products become the dominant source after shutdown.In operation condition,health-impacts related nuclides such as 3H,and 14C originate from the activation of lithium and coolant impurities including carbon,nitrogen,and oxygen.According to the calculated effective cross sections of neutron activation,6Li and 14N are the dominant 3H production source and 14C production source,respectively.Considering the high production rate,3H and 14C should be treated before being released to the environment.     

Analysis of relative release rates of radionuclides from the RBMK-1500 reactor fuel elements

Specific activities (concentrations) of fission products (FP) and activation products in spent fuel elements of the RBMK-1500 reactor were calculated using SCALE 5 computer code. Different burnup (5.1–21.0 MWd/kg) fuel assemblies were experimentally investigated. Activities of radionuclides present in the coolant water of storage cases of defective fuel elements were experimentally measured and analyzed. Experimental results provide a basis for a quantitative analysis of radionuclide release from spent fuel of the RBMK-1500 reactor. Relative release rates of radionuclides from the fuel matrix were assessed based on a comparison of experimental results with theoretical calculations. On the basis of analysis results released fission and activation products can be divided into several groups according to their release rates from fuel; this can be generalized for radionuclides with similar chemical properties.     

氟盐冷却高温堆主冷却剂放射性源项研究

针对氟盐冷却高温堆(FHR)正常运行时主冷却剂放射性源项进行了研究。对主回路源项主要贡献来源及产生原理进行了分析,基于三维蒙特卡罗输运程序KENOⅥ、燃耗分析模块ORIGEN-S及Mathematica程序,对堆芯中子能谱、堆芯源项及主回路源项扩散及活化进行了分析。应用该方法对FHR的一种设计堆型进行了定量分析,结果表明:主回路氚源项相对其他堆的较高,其产生率为5.16×1014 Bq·GWth~(-1)·d~(-1),应采取有效措施限制其向环境的释放。本文结果可为FHR的工程设计、辐射防护设计、氚源项控制、三废处理系统设计等提供参考。     

Calculation of the activity of fission products in the primary coolant of the eastern-type pressurized water reactor (VVER1000-V446) of the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant at normal full power operational condition

Calculation of the primary circuit's coolant activation due to fission products (FPs) has been investigated for the eastern-type pressurized water reactor (VVER1000-V446). The reactor has been considered under normal full power operational condition for the first fuel cycle. Determination of the reactor coolant activity is based on time-dependent fission product core inventories. ORIGEN2.1 code has been used to determine the time-dependent fission product core inventories. The fission products activity in the primary coolant is calculated using a set of ordinary differential equations (ODEs) which governs the FPs concentration in the primary coolant. Results for 87 FPs have been calculated. The results of these calculations have been found to agree well with the corresponding available values found in the Final Safety Analysis Report (FSAR) of the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant (BNPP).     

压水堆核电站常规运行工况下气载放射性物质释放源项的计算

本文介绍一个自行编制的用于计算压水堆核电站在常规运行工况下气载放射性物质向环境释放量的计算机程序ＭＧＡＬＥＳ。采用ＯＲＩＧＥＮ２程序，根据燃料元件的成份和燃耗情况计算堆芯的放射性核素谱；用放射性物质经堆芯向一回路迁移的逃脱率系数计算一回路冷却剂中的放射性核素浓度；再考虑核电站实际运行过程中一、二回路冷却剂的泄漏以及通风、除气等过程，计算其正常运行工况下气载放射性物质向环境的释放量。     

水冷聚变堆主回路活化产物源项计算分析

水冷聚变堆中结构材料活化腐蚀产物和冷却剂活化产物是正常运行工况下的最主要放射性来源,也是反应堆运行及维护过程中工作人员辐照剂量的直接来源。本文使用CATE V2.1程序对国际热核聚变实验堆(International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor,ITER)LIM-OBB(Limiter-Out-Board Baffle)冷却回路的活化腐蚀产物和水活化产物进行模拟计算,并根据CATE模拟得到的放射性活度通过点核积分程序分别计算正常运行1.2 a及停堆15 d的剂量率。计算结果表明,反应堆运行期间冷却剂活化产物比活度和剂量率远大于结构材料活化腐蚀产物,而停堆后冷却剂活化产物迅速衰变完,结构材料的活化腐蚀产物成为比活度和剂量率的主要来源。     

弥散型燃料裂变产物释放行为分析研究

为了获得弥散型燃料裂变产物向一回路冷却剂的释放特性,开展了弥散型燃料裂变产物释放行为研究,开发了适用于弥散型燃料的裂变产物源项计算程序,并对裂变产物源项进行了影响分析。结果表明:沾污铀和起泡破损后裂变产物的核素谱存在一定差异;裂变产物的释放与起泡当量直径的平方成正比;对于弥散型燃料而言,起泡破损中通过反冲释放的占比较低;相同破口条件下的弥散型和陶瓷型燃料中裂变产物的释放存在量级的差别。本文开发的程序能够用于分析弥散型燃料的裂变产物源项,为后续相关研究工程设计奠定基础。      

Stochastic simulation of fission product activity in primary coolant due to fuel rod failures in typical PWRs under power transients

During normal operation of PWRs, routine fuel rods failures result in release of radioactive fission products (RFPs) in the primary coolant of PWRs. In this work, a stochastic model has been developed for simulation of failure time sequences and release rates for the estimation of fission product activity in primary coolant of a typical PWR under power perturbations. In the first part, a stochastic approach is developed, based on generation of fuel failure event sequences by sampling the time dependent intensity functions. Then a three-stage model based deterministic methodology of the FPCART code has been extended to include failure sequences and random release rates in a computer code FPCART-ST, which uses state-of-the-art LEOPARD and ODMUG codes as its subroutines. The value of the ¹³¹I activity in primary coolant predicted by FPCART-ST code has been found in good agreement with the corresponding values measured at ANGRA-1 nuclear power plant. The predictions of FPCART-ST code with constant release option have also been found to have good agreement with corresponding experimental values for time dependent ¹³⁵I, ¹³⁵Xe and ⁸⁹Kr concentrations in primary coolant measured during EDITHMOX-1 experiments.     

氟盐冷却高温堆主冷却剂系统16N源项分析

基于SCALE6.1程序包中的三维蒙特卡罗输运程序KENO-Ⅵ对氟盐冷却高温堆（FHR）堆芯中子能谱进行计算,利用Mathematica程序建立了¹⁶N源项在主冷却剂系统内的流动模型,对FHR的主冷却剂系统¹⁶N源项进行定量分析,对不同流速情况下主冷却剂系统不同区域¹⁶N源强分布进行研究。结果表明：当冷却剂体积流量大于4.15×10² cm³•s^-1、小于4.15×10⁶ cm³•s^-1时,流动效应对主冷却剂系统内¹⁶N源项浓度分布影响显著,在FHR的设计基准流量（4.15×10⁴ cm³•s^-1）情况下,堆芯中¹⁶N源项占总¹⁶N源项的76.98%,上腔室为18.89%,其余区域放射性活度占¹⁶N总量的4.13%。所建立分析方法及结论可为FHR的工程设计、辐射防护设计及源项的精确分析等提供参考。     

Estimation of the Tritium Behavior in the Pebble Type Gas Cooled Reactor for Hydrogen Production

In Korea, a nuclear hydrogen program has been established to develop and demonstrate mass production system for hydrogen generation. The objective of this study is to establish the evaluation procedure for predicting the tritium behavior in the 300 MWth Pebble type gas cooled reactor which is the one of the candidate reactors for nuclear hydrogen development and demonstration plant. The tritium generated by the fission reaction can be leaked to the helium coolant from the coated ceramic particles and fuel elements. The annual total release rate of the tritium is estimated as 0.47% from the fuel kernel to the helium coolant by the numerical method. Tritium attributed by ⁶Li existing as impurities in the reflector can be released to the helium coolant by the diffusion process and the total annual release rate of the tritium is estimated as 5.3% through the reflector to the helium coolant. Based on the Siverts' law, tritium permeation from the primary coolant to the hydrogen production system is also evaluated and the result is calculated as 76?0.23 Bq/g-H₂ with respect to the PRF (Permeation Reduction Factor= 10?1000) in case of the normal operation of the 300 MWth Pebble type reactor.     

调硼稀释对AP1000型压水堆一回路裂变产物源项影响研究

为了研究调硼稀释对压水反应堆一回路裂变产物源项的影响,利用一回路源项程序计算了平衡循环正常调硼,前段不调硼,整个过程不调硼三种条件下一回路裂变产物源项。结果表明,调硼稀释对平衡循环前期一回路源项影响不大,而对平衡循环后期一回路源项有较大影响,且不同类型核素受调硼稀释的作用大小也不同。最后为了判断调硼稀释对一回路各核素去除的相对作用,利用了图像法和比值法,结果表明两种方法均能较好表征调硼稀释对各核素的相对作用大小。     

核电厂氚的产生和排放分析

研究核电厂中氚在堆芯和主冷却剂中的产生方式,以及进入环境的途径、形态和排放量,是核电厂辐射环境影响评价非常重要的内容之一。本文通过分析压水堆核电厂中的主冷却剂系统、辅助系统、三废系统和厂房通风系统的运行模式,结合国际上的运行经验参数,研究主冷却剂中的氚排放进入环境大气的途径和形态。研究结果表明:理论计算分析结果与电厂运行经验数据相吻合,氚主要通过燃料棒中的三元裂变,可燃毒物棒中硼的活化以及主冷却剂中硼、锂和氘流经堆芯时的活化产生,主要以液态氚水形式排放,影响气液两相分配份额的主要因素取决于主冷却剂向反应堆厂房和辅助厂房的泄漏率。     

Effectiveness and adverse effects of in-vessel retention strategies under a postulated SGTR accident of an OPR1000

During a steam generator tube rupture (SGTR) accident, direct release of radioactive nuclides into the environment is postulated via bypassing the containment building. This conveys a significant threat in severe accident management (SAM) for minimization of radionuclide release. To mitigate this risk, a numerical assessment of SAM strategies was performed for an SGTR accident of an Optimized Power Reactor 1000 MWe (OPR1000) using MELCOR code. Three in-vessel mitigation strategies were evaluated and the effect of delayed operation action was analyzed. The MELCOR calculations showed that activation of a prompt secondary feed and bleed (F&B) operation using auxiliary feed water and use of an atmospheric dump valve could prevent core degradation. However, depressurization using the safety depressurization system could not prevent core degradation, and the injection of coolant via high-pressure safety injection without the use of reactor coolant system (RCS) depressurization increased fission product release. When mitigation action was delayed by 30 minutes after SAMG entrance, a secondary F&B operation failed in depressurizing the RCS sufficiently, and a significant amount of fission products were released into the environment. These results suggest that appropriate mitigation actions should be applied in a timely manner to achieve the optimal mitigation effects.     

Prediction of Nongaseous Fission Products Behavior in the Primary Cooling System of High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor

In high temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGRs), some amounts of fission products (FPs) are released mainly from fuel with failed coatings and are transported in the primary cooling system with the primary coolant during normal operation. In that case, condensable FPs plateout on the inner surface of components in the primary cooling system. On the other hand, since the HTGRs use helium gas as primary coolant, the primary coolant is not activated itself and very small amount of corrosion products is generated. Then, γ-ray emitted from the FPs becomes main source in shielding design of the HTGRs, and not only release amount from fuel but also plateout distributions of the FPs should be properly evaluated. Therefore, prediction of plateout behavior in the primary cooling system of HTGRs was carried out based on the calculation result of plateout distribution in High Temperature Engineering Test Reactor. Before the calculation, analytical model was verified by comparison with experimentally obtained plateout distributions and the applicability of the model to predict the plateout distributions in the primary cooling system of HTGR was certified.

This report describes the predicted result of plateout distribution in the primary cooling system of HTGR together with the verification result of the analytical model.     

Calculation of fuel burnup and radionuclide inventory in the Syrian miniature neutron source reactor using the GETERA code

Calculations of the fuel burnup and radionuclide inventory in the Syrian miniature neutron source reactor (MNSR) after 10 years (the reactor core expected life) of the reactor operation time are presented in this paper using the GETERA code. The code is used to calculate the fuel group constants and the infinite multiplication factor versus the reactor operating time for 10, 20, and 30 kW operating power levels. The amounts of uranium burntup and plutonium produced in the reactor core, the concentrations and radionuclides of the most important fission products and actinide radionuclides accumulated in the reactor core, and the total radioactivity of the reactor core were calculated using the GETERA code as well. It is found that the GETERA code is better than the WIMSD4 code for the fuel burnup calculation in the MNSR reactor since it is newer, has a bigger library of isotopes, and is more accurate.     

核电厂大破口失水事故始发严重事故的源项研究

本工作以900MW核电厂为研究对象,利用一体化安全分析程序研究大破口失水事故始发严重事故下惰性气体类、挥发类和非挥发类裂变产物释放、迁移特性及分布状况,在此基础上,计算释入环境的源项。结果表明,几乎所有的惰性气体类放射性核素均释入环境,挥发类放射性核素释入环境的份额为10-3数量级,非挥发类放射性核素释入环境的份额为10-6～10-8数量级。计算所得源项可应用于厂外后果评价。     

元件破损监测中关键核素活度测量的影响因素

通过实时测量反应堆主冷却剂中关键核素¹³¹I、¹³⁷Cs的活度来进行压水堆燃料元件破损监测时,主要的影响因素有净化系统的净化效果、核素自身的衰变、活化产物的影响、能量相近的裂变产物等。对这些影响因素进行了分析、推导,结果表明,只有裂变产物⁹⁹Mo对¹³¹I的定量测量有较大影响。     

Investigation of the impurities and fission products in the AVR coolant gas at an average hot-gas temperature of 950°C

Since 27 February, 1974, the AVR pebble bed reactor has been producing gas at an average temperature of 950°C. Therefore it is possible for the first time to gain experience in high temperature reactor operations and experiments with such a high temperature level. This is of particular interest with regard to efforts using high temperature reactors for production of nuclear process heat. This paper reports briefly on the preparations for a temperature increase and on the first experimental results obtained with a hot-gas temperature of 950°C. Measured data are given on the behaviour of inactive gaseous impurities, on the increase of fission gas activities, and on the increase of concentrations of solid fission products in the helium coolant gas. While the activities of the fission gases showed an insignificant increase in the coolant gas, considerable increase of activity was measured for solid fission products, especially for Ag isotopes. However, activities released from fuel elements are low so that there are no operational or safety problems.     

Doses from accidental releases of tritium and activation products into the atmosphere

In view of public acceptance and the licensing procedure of projected fusion reactors, the release of tritium and activation products during normal operation as well as after accidents is a significant safety aspect. Calculations have been performed under accidental conditions for unit releases of corrosion products from water coolant loops, of first wall erosion products including different coating materials, and of tritium in its chemical form of tritiated water (HTO). Dose assessments during normal operation have been performed for corrosion products from first wall primary coolant loop and for tritium in both chemical forms (HT/HTO). The two accident consequence assessment (ACA) codes UFOTRI and COSYMA have been applied for the deterministic dose calculations with nearly the same input variables and for several radiological source terms. Furthermore, COSYMA and NORMTRI have been applied for routine release scenarios. The paper analyzes the radioation doses to individuals and the population resulting from the different materials assumed to be released in the environment.D.T.I. Dr. Trippe Ing. GmbH, Karlsruhe.     

大型先进压水堆IVR策略评估和裂变产物分布计算

大型先进压水堆通过堆内熔融物滞留（IVR）策略来缓解严重事故后果以降低安全壳失效风险。其中堆腔注水系统（CIS）被引入来实现IVR。本文使用严重事故分析软件计算大型先进压水堆在冷管段双端断裂事故下的事故进程、热工水力行为、堆芯退化过程和下封头熔融池传热行为,评估能动CIS的事故缓解能力。计算结果表明,事故后72 h,下封头外表面热流密度始终低于临界热流密度（CHF）,表明IVR策略有效。此外,计算分析了惰性气体、非挥发性和挥发性裂变产物的释放和迁移行为。计算发现,IVR下更多的放射性裂变产物分布在主系统内,壁面核素再悬浮形成气溶胶的行为被消除,安全壳壁面上沉积的核素被大量冷凝水冲刷进入底部水池。总体来说,IVR策略能更好地管理放射性核素分布,减小放射性泄漏威胁。