晶体表面特性对PET探测器性能的影响

<正>电子发射断层成像(Positron Emission Tomography,PET)作为最灵敏和具有定量测量能力的功能分子影像技术,越来越广泛地应用于生物医学研究,如疾病的动物模型、新药物的研发和新治疗方法的评估等。提高探测器的性能是改进PET仪器性能的关键,PET探测器通常由分割的闪烁晶体阵列和光探测器组成,文中使用位置灵敏光电倍增管和不同晶体表面特性的硅酸钇镥((Lu,Y)2Si O5,LYSO)晶体阵列,对新型的双端读出三维PET探测器和传统的单端读出二维PET探测器的性能进行了测量。实验结果表明,对于双端读出PET探测器,两种晶体阵列提供相近的晶体分辨图和能量分辨率,但非抛光晶体阵列提供好的深度分辨率,双端读出PET探测器需要使用表面不抛光的晶体阵列;对单端读出PET探测器,抛光晶体阵列提供好的晶体分布图和能量分辨率,单端读出PET探测器需要使用表面抛光的晶体阵列。     

Study of PET Detector Performance with Varying SiPM Parameters and Readout Schemes

The spatial resolution performance characteristics of a monolithic crystal PET detector utilizing a sensor on the entrance surface (SES) design is reported. To facilitate this design, we propose to utilize a 2D silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) array device. Using a multi-step simulation process, we investigated the performance of a monolithic crystal PET detector with different data readout schemes and different SiPM parameters. The detector simulated was a 49.2mm by 49.2mm by 15mm LYSO crystal readout by a 12 by 12 array of 3.8mm by 3.8mm SiPM elements. A statistics based positioning (SBP) method was used for event positioning and depth of interaction (DOI) decoding. Although individual channel readout provided better spatial resolution, row-column summing is proposed to reduce the number of readout channels. The SiPM parameters investigated include photon detection efficiency (PDE) and gain variability between different channels; PDE and gain instability; and dark count noise. Of the variables investigated, the PDE shift of -3.2±0.7% and gain shift of -4±0.9% between detector testing and detector calibration had the most obvious impact on the detector performance, since it not only degraded the spatial resolution but also led to bias in positioning, especially at the edges of the crystal. The dark count noise also had an impact on the intrinsic spatial resolution. No data normalization is required for PDE variability of up to 12% FWHM and gain variability of up to 15% FWHM between SiPM channels. Based upon these results, a row-column summing readout scheme without data normalization will be used. Further, we plan to cool our detectors below room temperature to reduce dark count noise and to actively control the temperature of the SiPMs to reduce drifts in PDE and gain.     

SiPM耦合LYSO晶体探测器的能量分辨和时间分辨

本文采用符合测量的方法研究了SENLE公司生产的型号为Micro FC-30035-SMT的Si PM光电转换器件耦合尺寸为3×3×10 mm的LYSO晶体组成的闪烁探测器的能量分辨率和时间分辨。该探测器测得22Na放射源能量为511 ke V光子的能量分辨率(FWHM)为16%,时间分辨达135 ps。     

基于沿单层LYSO晶体阵列深度多层反射膜分布的深度编码PET探测器研究

本文提出了在单层LYSO晶体阵列中,采用沿晶体深度布局多层反射膜,并通过SiPM阵列单端读出,从而进行深度测量的PET探测器方法。制作了2个晶体大小为3 mm×3 mm×20 mm的2×2 LYSO晶体阵列,分别布局2层和4层反射膜,对该探测器性能的实验测量结果表明,此探测器可清楚区分所有晶体单元。对于布局2层反射膜的探测器,上下两层事件平均正确指定的概率为85.1%,4个不同深度事件的平均正确指定概率为65.5%;对于布局4层反射膜的探测器,4个不同深度事件的平均正确指定概率为74.8%。布局4层反射膜的探测器的深度分辨率优于布局2层反射膜的探测器。两个探测器的平均能量分辨率分别为18.0%和12.2%。这种可分辨γ射线与晶体作用点深度的新型PET探测器,可用于今后研发高性能脑专用、全身和全景PET成像系统。     

基于GAGG:Ce晶体耦合SiPM的位置灵敏探测器的设计与评估

为满足当前γ相机对高分辨率、低成本、小型化探测器的需求,提出了采用硅光电倍增管（SiPM）耦合GAGG:Ce晶体阵列的方式代替传统的位置灵敏型光电倍增管（PSPMT）耦合晶体阵列的方式以构成新型γ相机探测器,并设计了均匀电荷分配电路（SCDC）和阻抗电桥电路作为探测器的读出电路,同时设计了前沿定时电路作为数据采集触发电路。实验结果表明：当温度为25 ℃、探测器供电电压为28.5 V时,该探测器在511 keV射线的激发下,散点图的峰谷比高达3.84,对511 keV和662 keV射线的平均能量分辨率分别为10.63%和9.71%,具有较好的分辨性能。     

基于多种探测算法结果分级融合的PET探测器晶体查找表建立算法

高分辨率是现代正电子发射型断层显像仪(Positron Emission Tomography,PET)设备最重要的技术指标之一,高分辨率PET探测器通常由海量闪烁晶体组成,这使得探测器校准时,晶体查找表建立的工作量大幅增加,从而对相关自动化算法的鲁棒性提出了更高的要求。目前,晶体阵列的矫正主要依赖固定放射源对探测器晶体阵列成像得到的光子二维位置直方图。高分辨率PET探测器的晶体阵列中晶体个数增多,尺寸变小,导致二维位置直方图信噪比下降,且非线性形变更加复杂,使已有的晶体查找表建立算法都无法得到理想的自动化效率。在测试了多种前沿的晶体查找表建立算法后发现,某些算法的结果之间有很强的互补性,可以通过将多种算法结果相融合的方法得到优于单一探测算法的结果。因此提出了一种基于多种探测算法结果分级融合的晶体查找表建立算法,在实现过程中选取了三种互补性较强的晶体探测方法,分级融合其结果,大幅度降低了二维位置直方图上晶体分割的出错概率,获得了鲁棒的结果。     

Investigation of a Multi-Anode Microchannel Plate PMT for Time-of-Flight PET

We report on an investigation of a mulit-anode microchannel plate PMT for time-of-flight PET detector modules. The primary advantages of an MCP lie in its excellent timing properties (fast rise time and low transit time spread), compact size, and reasonably large active area, thus making it a good candidate for TOF applications. In addition, the anode can be segmented into an array of collection electrodes with fine pitch to attain good position sensitivity. In this paper, we investigate using the Photonis Planacon MCP-PMT with a pore size of 10 μm to construct a PET detector module, specifically for time-of-flight applications. We measure the single electron response by exciting the Planacon with pulsed laser diode. We also measure the performance of the Planacon as a PET detector by coupling a 4 mm × 4 mm × 10 mm LSO crystal to individual pixel to study its gain uniformity, energy resolution, and timing resolution. The rise time of the Planacon is 440 ps with pulse duration of about 1 ns. A transit time spread of 120 ps FWHM is achieved. The gain is fairly uniform across the central region of the Planacon, but drops off by as much as a factor of 2.5 around the edges. The energy resolution is fairly uniform across the Planacon with an average value of 18.6±0.7% FWHM. While the average timing resolution of 252±7 ps FWHM is achieved in the central region of the Planacon, it degrades to 280±9 ps FWHM for edge pixels and 316±15 ps FWHM for corner pixels. We compare the results with measurements performed with a fast timing conventional PMT (Hamamatsu R-9800). We find that the R9800, which has significantly higher PDE, has a better timing resolution than the Planacon. Furthermore, we perform detector simulations to calculate the improvement that can be achieved with a higher PDE Planacon. The calculation shows that the Planacon can achieve significantly better timing resolution if it can attain the same PDE as the R-9800, while only a 30% improvement is needed to yield a similar timing resolution as the R-9800.     

自由结构PET在束监测碳离子治疗剂量成像过程研究

In-beam PET 成像为碳离子、质子等粒子放射治疗提供了一种非侵入式的实时剂量监测方法。本文设计自由结构的in-beam PET模型,包括环形、C型、双平板型和直角型PET,并在蒙特卡罗模拟平台GATE上仿真碳离子打靶的in-beam PET成像过程。该PET包含32个探测模块,通过自由组合的方式形成探测视野相近、适用于人体或小动物体不同部位的碳离子治疗剂量成像。每个探测模块由20×20的硅酸钇镥晶体阵列耦合硅光电倍增管构成。单个晶体大小为1.5 mm×1.5 mm×10 mm,像素为1.6 mm。在蒙特卡罗模拟平台GATE中仿真230 MeV/u的碳离子笔形束轰击聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯（PMMA）靶体和在束PET成像过程,得到正电子核素分布后通过MLEM算法得到PET断层图像。结果显示,图像峰位的变化反映了正电子活度峰位的移动,表明自由结构PET可用于在束监测碳离子治疗剂量分布。使用八探头平板型在束PET成像实验和仿真进行对比,其图像一维谱峰值均为27 mm,验证了自由结构PET模型用于在束监测碳离子治疗剂量成像可行。     

闪烁体耦合SiPM测量γ能谱的模拟研究

硅光电倍增管(Silicon photomultiplier,SiPM)是一种新型的光电探测器件,由工作在盖革模式下的雪崩二极管阵列组成。利用GEANT4蒙特卡罗软件包对LaBr_3:10%Ce~(3+)、Na I(TI)闪烁晶体耦合SiPM测量γ射线能谱进行了细致的模拟,通过单色光LED光源照射SiPM,得到SiPM自身暗电流噪声经电子学放大后,与集成的盖革雪崩二极管之间的间隙引起吸收光子涨落对能谱的展宽。对模拟得到的662 keVγ射线能量分辨率进行修正,最后与实验结果对比能够很好地符合,还得到了一组对应闪烁晶体本征能量分辨率的程序参数Pr,s。结果验证了模拟程序设置的闪烁晶体与封装材料光学参数的合理性与可靠性,为闪烁体探测器设计提供了一套开发工具。     

硅光电管-闪烁体探测器γ谱仪研制

实验研制了硅光电管-闪烁体探测器γ谱仪。该γ谱仪用硅光电倍增管代替普通光电倍增管作为闪烁体探测器的光学读出端,配置闪烁体探测器,构成新型γ谱仪。测试结果表明:新型γ谱仪随温度漂移变化程度大;能量线性较好,线性相关度R为0.9987;配置LaBr_3:10%Ce~(3+)晶体,其能量分辨率为4.3%~4.9%;配置NaI(TI)晶体,其能量分辨率为8.4%。     

基于硅光电倍增管对塑料闪烁光纤衰减长度及光产额的研究

作为外靶实验终端（ETF）飞行时间探测的关键探测器,起始时间探测器需满足承受高计数率、高时间分辨和位置分辨等需求。塑料闪烁光纤（PSF）作为起始时间探测器改进方案的一种考虑,其衰减长度、光产额等性能参数将直接影响探测器的实际性能。本工作基于硅光电倍增管(SiPM)和PSF搭建相应的测试平台,系统研究了SiPM SensL MicroFC-SMA-30035和PSF Kuraray SCSF-78J的实际性能。结果表明：所选型号的SiPM具有优秀的单光子分辨能力,在所选工作电压范围内具有高增益及良好的增益线性,且具有较好的线性响应;光子在光纤中的衰减由两种成分组成,芯层光的有效衰减长度为547.4 cm,包层光的有效衰减长度为15.5 cm,光纤有效光产额约为552光子/mm,实际光产额约为968光子/mm。测试结果表明,采用该PSF结合SiPM读出的方式满足新型起始时间探测器的要求。     

Comparison of Detector Intrinsic Spatial Resolution Characteristics for Sensor on the Entrance Surface and Conventional Readout Designs

We report on a high resolution, monolithic crystal PET detector design concept that provides depth of interaction (DOI) positioning within the crystal. Our design utilizes a novel sensor on the entrance surface (SES) approach combined with a maximum likelihood positioning algorithm. We compare the intrinsic spatial resolution characteristics (i.e., X, Y and Z) using our SES design versus conventional placement of the photo-sensors on the rear surface of the crystal. The sensors can be any two-dimensional array of solid state readout devices (e.g., silicon photomultipliers (SiPM) or avalanche photodiodes (APD)). SiPMs are a new type of solid-state photodetector with Geiger mode operation that can provide signal gain similar to a photomltipiler tube (PMT). Utilizing a multi-step simulation process, we determined the intrinsic spatial resolution characteristics for a variety of detector configurations. The SES design was evaluated via simulation for three different two-dimensional array sizes: 8×8 with 5.8×5.8 mm(2) pads; 12×12 with 3.8×3.8mm(2) pads; and 16×16 with 2.8×2.8 mm(2) pads. To reduce the number of signal channels row-column summing readout was used for the 12×12 and 16×16 channel array devices. The crystal was modeled as a 15 mm monolithic slab of a lutetium-based scintillator with the large area surface varying from 48.8×48.8 mm(2) up to 49.6×49.6 mm(2) depending upon the dimensions of the two-dimensional photo-sensor array. The intrinsic spatial resolution for the 8×8 array is 0.88 mm FWHM in X and Y, and 1.83 mm FWHM in Z (i.e., DOI). Comparing the results versus using a conventional design with the photo-sensors on the backside of the crystal, an average improvement of ~24% in X and Y and 20% in Z is achieved. The X, Y intrinsic spatial resolution improved to 0.67 mm and 0.64 mm FWHM for the 12×12 and 16×16 arrays using row-column readout. Using the 12×12 and 16×16 arrays also led to a slight improvement in the DOI positioning accuracy.     

一种基于SiPM的具有高能量分辨率的紧凑型溴化镧γ谱仪

基于光电倍增管(photomultiplier tube,简称PMT)的LaBr₃:Ce γ谱仪具有比NaI(Tl)γ谱仪更高的能量分辨率,但具有体积大、对磁场敏感、需要高电压等缺点。硅光电倍增管(Silicon photomultiplier tube,简称SiPM)具有与PMT相近的增益和效率,同时具有诸如高定时分辨率、抗磁场能力强、低偏压和紧凑尺寸等优良特性。本文将LaBr₃:Ce晶体与SiPM阵列耦合,设计研制基于SiPM的紧凑型LaBr₃:Ce γ谱仪,通过降噪、优化工作电压等措施改善SiPM的缺点对γ谱仪性能的影响。工作电压的噪声会导致能量分辨率发生恶化,通过设计无源滤波电路CLC π型滤波器,利用其对直/交流阻抗的不同特性,滤除高频纹波,工作电压的信噪比从未降噪前的62.6 dB提高到74.64 dB;能量分辨率最优值对应于表示暗噪声、串扰、光电探测效率和SiPM增益之间折衷的最佳工作电压。通过实验给出不同工作电压下的能量分辨率,确定最佳工作电压为54.8 V,该电压下的能量分辨率为3.06%(@662 keV),结果与使用光电倍增管(PMT)测量的2.89％非常接近。     

Monte Carlo optimization of depth-of-interaction resolution in PETcrystals

The light distribution along one edge of a PET (positron emission tomography) scintillation crystal was investigated by Monte Carlo simulation. This position-dependent light distribution can be used to measure the position of the 500-keV photon interaction, in the crystal on an event-by-event basis, thus reducing radial elongation. The predicted full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the light distribution on the 3×30 mm surface of a 3×10×30 mm bismuth germanate (BGO) crystal surrounded by diffuse reflector is 3.0 mm. This light distribution is constant for widths (originally 3 mm) between 1 and 6 mm, but decreases from 3.0 to 1.8 mm FWHM as the height is reduced from 10 to 3 mm. Other geometrical modifications were simulated, including corner reflectors on the opposing 3×30 mm surface. A promising geometry is a 2.2×5×30 mm BGO crystal, for which a 2.2 mm FWHM light distribution is predicted, which should yield a PET detector module with a depth of interaction measurement resolution of 3.6 mm FWHM     

Performance Characteristics of BGO Detectors for a Low Cost Preclinical PET Scanner

PETbox is a low-cost benchtop PET scanner dedicated to high throughput preclinical imaging that is currently under development at our institute. This paper presents the design and characterization of the detectors that are used in the PETbox system. In this work, bismuth germanate scintillator was used for the detector, taking advantage of its high stopping power, high photoelectric event fraction, lack of intrinsic background radiation and low cost. The detector block was segmented into a pixelated array consisting of 20 × 44 elements, with a crystal pitch of 2.2 mm and a crystal cross section of 2 mm × 2 mm. The effective area of the array was 44 mm × 96.8 mm. The array was coupled to two Hamamatsu H8500 position sensitive photomultiplier tubes, forming a flat-panel type detector head with a sensitive area large enough to cover the whole body of a typical laboratory mouse. Two such detector heads were constructed and their performance was characterized. For one detector head, the energy resolution ranged from 16.1% to 38.5% full width at half maximum (FWHM), with a mean of 20.1%; for the other detector head, the energy resolution ranged from 15.5% to 42.7% FWHM, with a mean of 19.6%. The intrinsic spatial resolution was measured to range from 1.55 mm to 2.39 mm FWHM along the detector short axis and from 1.48 mm to 2.33 mm FWHM along the detector long axis, with an average of 1.78 mm. Coincidence timing resolution for the detector pair was measured to be 4.1 ns FWHM. These measurement results show that the detectors are suitable for our specific application.     

Use of Cramer-Rao Lower Bound for Performance Evaluation of Different Monolithic Crystal PET Detector Designs

We have previously reported on continuous miniature crystal element (cMiCE) PET detectors that provide depth of interaction (DOI) positioning capability. A key component of the design is the use of a statistics-based positioning (SBP) method for 3D event positioning. The Cramer-Rao lower bound (CRLB) expresses limits on the estimate variances for a set of deterministic parameters. We examine the CRLB as a useful metric to evaluate the performance of our SBP algorithm and to quickly compare the best possible resolution when investigating new detector designs.In this work, the CRLB is first reported based upon experimental results from a cMiCE detector using a 50×50×15-mm(3) LYSO crystal readout by a 64-channel PMT (Hamamatsu H8500) on the exit surface of the crystal. The X/Y resolution is relatively close to the CRLB, while the DOI resolution is more than double the CRLB even after correcting for beam diameter and finite X (i.e., reference DOI position) resolution of the detector. The positioning performance of the cMiCE detector with the same design was also evaluated through simulation. Similar with the experimental results, the difference between the CRLB and measured spatial resolution is bigger in DOI direction than in X/Y direction.Another simulation study was conducted to investigate what causes the difference between the measured spatial resolution and the CRLB. The cMiCE detector with novel sensor-on-entrance-surface (SES) design was modeled as a 49.2×49.2×15-mm(3) LYSO crystal readout by a 12×12 array of 3.8×3.8-mm(2) silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) elements with 4.1-mm center-to-center spacing on the entrance surface of the crystal. The results show that there are two main causes to account for the differences between the spatial resolution and the CRLB. First, Compton scatter in the crystal degrades the spatial resolution. The DOI resolution is degraded more than the X/Y resolution since small angle scatter is preferred. Second, our maximum likelihood (ML) clustering algorithm also has limitations when developing 3D look up tables during detector calibration.     

基于LaBr3(Ce)晶体耦合SiPM阵列的可变角分辨率伽玛相机的设计与研制

编码孔径成像技术由于探测效率高、信噪比高、角分辨率好、成像质量稳定可靠等优点而广泛应用于核安全、核设施的去污及退役的测量、核医学等领域。建立通过改变编码准直器和探测器之间距离进而实现可变角分辨的伽玛成像系统。整个成像系统主要由编码准直器、位置灵敏探测(position sensitive detector, PSD)、数据采集卡以及图像重建系统组成。该成像系统的编码准直器采用修正均匀冗余阵列(modified uniformly redundant array, MURA)编码方式,为了保障对较高能量射线的探测能力,编码准直器的材料采用含钨量90%的钨铜合金,PSD通过LaBr₃(Ce)晶体耦合SiPM阵列组成,重建算法采用的是直接互卷积算法,快速高效。测试结果显示,整个位置灵敏探测器的平均能量分辨率为4.96%(662 keV);该辐射成像系统可以准确地对Am-241、Cs-137、Co-60进行清晰成像,并通过改变编码准直器和探测器之间的距离成功分辨出两个Cs-137点源的位置。     

大体积氟化钡探测器的性能测试

中国原子能科学研究院正在研制建立的γ全吸收型探测装置（GTAF）由40个氟化钡（BaF₂）探测器单元组成。对单个大体积氟化钡晶体探测器单元的主要相关性能,诸如单个探测器的组装、晶体封装条件和探测器能量分辨、时间分辨及其长期稳定性等进行测试。测试结果表明,40个氟化钡（BaF₂）探测器单元的能量分辨和时间分辨符合基于γ全吸收型探测装置的中子辐射俘获核反应截面测量需求。     

Investigation of OPET Performance Using GATE, a Geant4-Based Simulation Software

A combined optical positron emission tomography (OPET) system is capable of both optical and PET imaging in the same setting, and it can provide information/interpretation not possible in single-mode imaging. The scintillator array here serves the dual function of coupling the optical signal from bioluminescence/fluorescence to the photodetector and also of channeling optical scintillations from the gamma rays. We report simulation results of the PET part of OPET using GATE, a Geant4 simulation package. The purpose of this investigation is the definition of the geometric parameters of the OPET tomograph. OPET is composed of six detector blocks arranged in a hexagonal ring-shaped pattern with an inner radius of 15.6 mm. Each detector consists of a two-dimensional array of 8 × 8 scintillator crystals each measuring 2 × 2 × 10 mm(3). Monte Carlo simulations were performed using the GATE software to measure absolute sensitivity, depth of interaction, and spatial resolution for two ring configurations, with and without gantry rotations, two crystal materials, and several crystal lengths. Images were reconstructed with filtered backprojection after angular interleaving and transverse one-dimensional interpolation of the sinogram. We report absolute sensitivities nearly seven times that of the prototype microPET at the center of field of view and 2.0 mm tangential and 2.3 mm radial resolutions with gantry rotations up to an 8.0 mm radial offset. These performance parameters indicate that the imaging spatial resolution and sensitivity of the OPET system will be suitable for high-resolution and high-sensitivity small-animal PET imaging.     

Optimization of a LSO-Based Detector Module for Time-of-Flight PET

We have explored methods for optimizing the timing resolution of an LSO-based detector module for a single-ring, "demonstration" time-of-flight PET camera. By maximizing the area that couples the scintillator to the PMT and minimizing the average path length that the scintillation photons travel, a single detector timing resolution of 218 ps fwhm is measured, which is considerably better than the ~385 ps fwhm obtained by commercial LSO or LYSO TOF detector modules. We explored different surface treatments (saw-cut, mechanically polished, and chemically etched) and reflector materials (Teflon tape, ESR, Lumirror, Melinex, white epoxy, and white paint), and found that for our geometry, a chemically etched surface had 5% better timing resolution than the saw-cut or mechanically polished surfaces, and while there was little dependence on the timing resolution between the various reflectors, white paint and white epoxy were a few percent better. Adding co-dopants to LSO shortened the decay time from 40 ns to ~30 ns but maintained the same or higher total light output. This increased the initial photoelectron rate and so improved the timing resolution by 15%. Using photomultiplier tubes with higher quantum efficiency (blue sensitivity index of 13.5 rather than 12) improved the timing resolution by an additional 5%. By choosing the optimum surface treatment (chemically etched), reflector (white paint), LSO composition (co-doped), and PMT (13.5 blue sensitivity index), the coincidence timing resolution of our detector module was reduced from 309 ps to 220 ps fwhm.