Development of rubberized syntactic foam

This study explored a novel hybrid syntactic foam for composite sandwich structures. A unique microstructure was designed and realized. The hybrid foam was fabricated by dispersing styrene–butadiene rubber latex coated glass microballoons into a nanoclay and milled glass fiber reinforced epoxy matrix. The manufacturing process for developing this unique microstructure was developed. A total of seven groups of beam specimens with varying compositions were prepared. Each group contained 12 identical specimens with dimensions 304.8 mm × 50.8 mm × 15.2 mm. The total number of specimens was 84. Among them, 42 beams were pure foam core specimens and the remaining 42 beams were sandwich specimens with each foam core wrapped by two layers of E-glass plain woven fabric reinforced epoxy skin. Both low velocity impact tests and four-point bending tests were conducted on the foam cores and sandwich beams. Compared with the control specimens, the test results showed that the rubberized syntactic foams were able to absorb a considerably higher amount of impact energy with an insignificant sacrifice in strength. This multi-phase material contained structures bridging over several length-scales. SEM pictures showed that several mechanisms were activated to collaboratively absorb impact energy, including microballoon crushing, interfacial debonding, matrix microcracking, and fiber pull-out; the rubber layer and the microfibers prevented the microcracks from propagating into macroscopic damage by means of rubber pinning and fiber bridge-over mechanisms. The micro-length scale damage insured that the sandwich beams retained the majority of their strength after the impact.     

Strengthening steel bridge sections using CFRP laminates

This paper presents results from an experimental investigation to determine the feasibility of using carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) epoxy laminates to repair steel composite bridge members. Six specimens, each consisting of a 6.1 m long W8×24 wide flange A36 steel beam acting compositely with a 0.114 m thick by 0.71 m wide reinforced concrete slab, were first loaded past yield of the tension flange to simulate severe service distress. The damaged specimens were then repaired using 3.65 m lengths of 2 or 5 mm thick CFRP laminates bonded to the tension flange and tested to failure. The results indicated significant ultimate strength gains but more modest improvement in the elastic response. Non-linear finite element analyses were in good agreement with the experimental results. The study suggests that it is feasible to strengthen steel composite members using CFRP laminates.     

The role of delamination in strength,failure mechanism and hole size effect in open hole tensile tests on quasi-isotropic laminates

Results of several different series of open hole tension tests on quasi-isotropic IM7/8552 carbon fibre/epoxy laminates with the same stacking sequence but different ply block thicknesses and numbers of sublaminates are summarised. Specimens with single 0.125 mm thick plies failed by fibre fracture, with the strength decreasing with increasing hole size. Ones with 0.5 mm thick blocks of plies all delaminated, with the failure stress increasing with increasing hole diameter, the opposite to the usual hole size effect. Specimens with 0.25 mm thick ply blocks showed intermediate response, with small ones failing by delamination, and large ones by fibre failure, and constant strength over a range of hole sizes from 1.6 to 12.7 mm diameter. The crucial role of delamination in the strength and failure mechanism in open hole tension is examined in order to explain these results and show why conventional hole size corrections may not always be applicable.     

Drop-weight impact of plain-woven hybrid glass–graphite/toughened epoxy composites

The progressive damage behaviors of hybrid woven composite panels (101.6 mm × 101.6 mm) impacted by drop-weights at four different velocities were studied by a combined experimental and 3-D dynamic nonlinear finite element approach. The specimens tested were made of plain-weave hybrid S2 glass-IM7 graphite fibers/toughened epoxy (cured at 177 °C). The composite panels were damaged using a pressure-assisted Instron-Dynatup 8520 instrumented drop-weight impact tester. During these low-velocity simpact tests, the time-histories of impact-induced dynamic strains and impact forces were recorded. The damaged specimens were inspected visually and using ultrasonic C-Scan methods. The commercially available 3-D dynamic nonlinear finite element (FE) software, LS-DYNA, incorporated with a proposed user-defined damage-induced nonlinear orthotropic model, was then used to simulate the experimental results of drop-weight tests. Good agreement between experimental and FE results has been achieved when comparing dynamic force, strain histories and damage patterns from experimental measurements and FE simulations.     

Exploring mechanical property balance in tufted carbon fabric/epoxy composites

The paper details the manufacturing processes involved in the preparation of through-the-thickness reinforced composites via the ‘dry preform–tufting–liquid resin injection’ route. Samples for mechanical testing were prepared by tufting a 5 harness satin weave carbon fabric in a 3 mm × 3 mm square pitch configuration with a commercial glass or carbon tufting thread, infusing the reinforced preforms with liquid epoxy resin and curing them under moderate pressure. The glass thread reinforcement increases the compression-after-impact strength of a 3.3 mm thick carbon fabric laminate by 25%. The accompanying drop-downs in static tensile modulus and strength of the same tufted laminate are below 10%. The presence of tufts is also shown to result in a significant increase in the delamination crack growth resistance of tufted double-cantilever beam specimens and has been quantified for the case of a 6 mm thick tufted carbon non-crimped fabric (NCF)/epoxy composite.     

Studies of hygrothermal degradation of a single fiber composite: An iterative approach with embedded optical sensors and numerical analysis

The hydrothermal ageing of glass/epoxy interface is investigated using an experimental–numerical approach on cylindrical epoxy specimens with centrally located optical fibers. A 24 mm long Bragg grating sensor is inscribed on the optical fiber and used to monitor strains along the fiber, due to processing and subsequent ageing in water at 50 °C. The distributed strains are used to: (a) evaluate the residual strain field developed during processing, employing a parametric finite element identification scheme, (b) monitor the evolution of the moisture induced strains during ageing using linear and non-linear responses for the epoxy recorded experimentally, (c) track debond growth at the interface, generated during ageing, by adopting a concentration dependent cohesive finite element model. Good agreement is found between experimental data and simulations until 47 days of immersion (or 63% of saturation). Afterwards, the model is not quantitatively accurate but indicates well the trend of the experimental data.     

Design of the composite sandwich panel of the hot pad for the bonding of large area adhesive films

A light-weight hot pad system for curing large area adhesive films for the secondary barrier of cryogenic cargo containments of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) has been developed with a composite sandwich panel.In order to apply uniform pressure to the adhesive on unlevel insulation panels and to obtain an adequate adhesive thickness, a flexible stainless steel foil heater supported by a butyl rubber air pressure bag has been utilized for the lower part of the hot pad system, and a temperature controller provides reliable curing of the adhesive. To decrease the weight of the hot pad system and mitigate heat loss through the pad, the upper part of the hot pad system has been built with a composite sandwich panel composed of glass fiber epoxy composite face, polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foam cores with low thermal conductivity.Through finite element analysis and experimentation on hot pad systems, a light-weight hot pad system that is able to cure a 0.3 m by 3.5 m area has been developed with an autoclave cure quality.     

Construction and characterization of stainless steel/polyurea/E-glass composite joints

This work was motivated by the desire to improve the long-term durability of E-glass/Hysol 9394 epoxy/Al-6XN stainless steel joints whose fracture energy in a previous study was shown to fall from ∼950 J/m² (ambient) to a mere ∼88 J/m² after only two days of exposure to a 90%RH, 50 °C environment. This paper reports a new polyurea chemistry to bond the E-glass and steel sections with very promising results. The fracture energy under ambient condition was measured to be 1232 ± 15 J/m² using a double cantilever beam experiment. This value degraded by only 13% to 1070 ± 35 J/m² in samples that were conditioned for 30 days at 90%RH and 50 °C. The failure in all samples was cohesive, within the first ply of the E-glass composite that neighbored the polyurea interface. The intrinsic fracture energy measurements, devoid of inelastic effects, were also carried out by submerging samples in a liquid nitrogen bath. Values of 590 ± 25 J/m² were obtained, which can be used by the designers to set the local failure condition in design simulations of large-scale structures.     

Stress concentration effects of undercut defect and reinforcement metal in butt welded joint

In the present study, stress distribution of butt welded joints with various amounts of reinforcement metal and undercut defect has been investigated under uniaxial tension for a full penetration by systematically conducting a series of two-dimensional finite element (FE) models. The FE analysis indicated that the amount of reinforcement metal in weld zone has an important effect on stress distribution. For 120° of the reinforcement angle that designating reinforcement metal in weld joint, and 0.5 mm of toe radius, the value of stress concentration factor (SCF) exceeds 3.3σ₀. The analyses show that SCF takes much higher values in both low reinforcement angle and ratio of toe radius to plate thickness (R/t). As for joints with undercut defects, it is concluded that severity of SCF is mainly controlled by the ratio of depth to radius of undercut (h/r) and width (W). In addition to undercut defect, the presence of reinforcement metal, SCF noticeably increases with decreasing the reinforcement angle; it attains maximum value (7.4σ₀) for h/r = 5 and W = 3 mm. However, for the joints having wider undercut defects, the influence of reinforcement metal on SCF is found to be relatively lower; SCF is 6.7σ₀ for W = 6 mm. Finally, an attempt has been made to construct simple relationships among the SCF of the weld joint, reinforcement angle, undercut defect and dimensionless parameters defining weld toe detail.     

The effects of repeated transverse impact load on the burst pressure of composite pressure vessel

The present experimental study deals with the repeated transverse impact effect on the burst pressure of composite pressure vessels. Filament winding method is used to produce the vessels. Glass fiber reinforced (GFR) vessels are manufactured by using E-glass and epoxy resin. Composite pressure vessel was manufactured from fibers oriented [+55°/−55°/+55°/−55]_2s and the impact energies were chosen as 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 J for empty vessel during the impact tests. In addition, 10, 15, 20, 25 J for water filled conditions at 25 and 70 °C. The transverse impact load was applied in single and three times repeated form. The results show that when the impact load and water temperature increases, the burst pressure decreases.     

Study on mechanical properties of fly ash impregnated glass fiber reinforced polymer composites using mixture design analysis

This paper describes the mechanical behavior of fly ash impregnated E-glass fiber reinforced polymer composite (GFRP). Initially the proportion of fiber and resin were optimized from the analysis of the mechanical properties of the GFRP. It is observed that the 30 wt% of E-glass in the GFRP without filler material yields better results. Then, based on the optimized value of resin content, the varying percentage of E-glass and fly ash was added to fabricate the hybrid composites. Results obtained in this study were mathematically evaluated using Mixture Design Method. Predictions show that 10 wt% addition of fly ash with fiber improves the mechanical properties of the composites. The fly ash impregnated GFRP yields significant improvement in mechanical strength compared to the GFRP without filler material. The surface morphologies of the fractured specimens were characterized using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The chemical composition and surface morphology of the fly ash is analyzed by using Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and Scanning Electron Microscope.     

Quasi-static penetration and ballistic properties of kenaf–aramid hybrid composites

In this research, quasi-static penetration and ballistic properties of non-woven kenaf fibres/Kevlar epoxy hybrid laminates with thicknesses ranging from 3.1 mm to 10.8 mm by hard projectile at normal incidence have been experimentally investigated. Hybrid composites were fabricated by hand lay-up technique in a mould and cured at room temperature for 24 h by static load. Hybrid composites consist of Kevlar layers and non-woven kenaf layers at three different configurations, i.e. kenaf at the innermost layers, outermost layers and at the alternating layers. Kevlar/epoxy and kenaf/epoxy composites were also fabricated for comparison purpose. Quasi-static experiments were conducted using a tensile testing machine at the speed of 1.27 mm/min and 2.54 mm/min. Ballistic tests were conducted using 9 mm full metal jacket bullet using a powder gun at speeds varying from 172 to 339 m/s, with the initial and a residual velocity of the projectiles is measured. The tested sample was carefully examined with respect to failure modes. Results showed the effect of hybridization in term of force–displacement curves, energy dissipation and damage mechanisms for quasi-static test. Maximum force to initiate penetration is higher in hybrid composites compared to kenaf/epoxy and Kevlar/epoxy composites. Hybridization of kenaf–Kevlar resulted in a positive effect in terms of energy absorbed (penetration) and maximum load. In the case of ballistic tests, hybrid composites recorded lower ballistic limit (V₅₀) and energy absorption than the Kevlar/epoxy composite. The V₅₀ of hybrid composites with kenaf at the outermost layers is superior to other hybrid composites. These finding inspired further exploration of hybrid composite for ballistic armour spall-liner application.     

Seawater effect on impact behavior of glass–epoxy composite pipes

The effect of seawater immersion on impact behavior of glass–epoxy composite pipes is experimentally investigated. Glass–epoxy pipes with [±55°]₃ orientation were fabricated using filament winding method. Composite pipes were selected for four different diameters as 50 mm, 75 mm, 100 mm, and 150 mm. The pipes were immersed in artificial seawater having a salinity of about 3.5% for 3, 6, 9, and 12 months in laboratory conditions. At the end of the conditioning period, the specimens were impacted at three distinct energy levels as 15 J, 20 J, and 25 J at ambient temperature of 20 °C. The comparisons between the dry and immersed cases were carried out by using contact force, deflection and absorbed energy data of the impact tests. Results show that moisture absorption, salt in seawater, diameter of specimen and residual stresses produced by manufacturing process of the composite pipe have significant effect on maximum contact force, maximum deflection, absorbed energy and failure of composite pipes according to exposure time to seawater.     

An assessment of mechanical behavior and fractography study of glass/epoxy composites at different temperatures and loading speeds

Effect of loading rate on fracture and mechanical behavior of autoclave cured glass fiber/epoxy prepreg composite has been studied at various loading (striking) rates (0.01-10³ mm/min). The maximum load carrying capacity and strain at yield continuously increases with increasing loading speed. The interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) value is high at low loading speed and becomes low at high loading speed with the transition of loading rate at approximately 300 mm/min. The formation of steps, welt interfacial failure and cleavage formation on matrix resin i.e. localized plastic deformation processes were dominating mechanisms for specimens tested at low loading rates, while brittle fracture of fiber, fiber pull-out and impregnation were dominating mechanisms for specimens tested at loading rates of 800 mm/min or higher.     

Effect of stitching on the low-velocity impact response of [03/903]s graphite/epoxy laminates

This study examines the effect of stitching on the impact performance of a class of graphite/epoxy cross-ply laminates with the aim of investigating the ability of through-thickness reinforcement to improve the delamination resistance of laminates.Unstitched and stitched rectangular specimens (65 mm × 87.5 mm) were simply supported by a steel plate having a rectangular opening 45 mm × 67.5 mm in size and impacted at the center with energies ranging between 1 and 13 J. Stitched and unstitched laminates revealed similar structural performances in terms of force versus displacement response, energy absorption and residual indentation depth. It was also observed that whereas stitching does not appear capable of preventing the initiation and spread of delaminations, it induces a clear reduction of damage area when stitches bridge delaminations sufficiently developed in length.     

Repair of damaged RC columns using fast curing FRP composites

In this study, two fast curing resins were used to repair pre-damaged RC columns. They were 1.5-hour heat activated curing prepreg and 20-min ultraviolet curing resin. A 24-hour curing epoxy was also used for comparison purposes. A total of 24 steel reinforced φ 152.4 mm×609.6 mm small-scale concrete columns were designed, cast, cured, surface prepared, and pre-damaged. The damaged samples were repaired using the three types of E-glass fabric reinforced resins. An accelerated conditioning using boiling seawater and ultraviolet radiation was also conducted to investigate the hygrothermal durability of the repaired samples. Uniaxial compression test was conducted on both control samples and conditioned samples. The test results and cost/benefit analysis results show that the two fast curing resins can replace the currently used long-time curing resins in repairing damaged RC columns.     

Effect of basalt fiber hybridization on the impact behavior under low impact velocity of glass/basalt woven fabric/epoxy resin composites

The low velocity impact behavior of E-glass/basalt reinforced hybrid laminates, manufactured by resin transfer moulding technique, was investigated. Specimens prepared with different stacking sequences were tested at three different impact energies, namely 5 J, 12.5 J and 25 J. Residual post-impact mechanical properties of the different configurations were characterized by quasi static four point bending tests. Post-impact flexural tests have been also monitored using acoustic emission in order to get further information on failure mechanisms. Results showed that basalt and hybrid laminates with an intercalated configuration exhibited higher impact energy absorption capacity than glass laminates, and enhanced damage tolerance capability. Conversely, the most favorable flexural behavior was shown by laminates with symmetrical sandwich-like configuration (E-glass fiber fabrics as core and basalt fiber fabrics as skins).     

Effect of stitch density on tensile properties and damage mechanisms of stitched carbon/epoxy composites

Experimental investigation is performed to study tensile properties, damage initiation and development in stitched carbon/epoxy composites subjected to tensile loading. T800SC-24kf dry preforms with tow orientation of [+45/90/−45/0₂/+45/90₂/−45/0]s are stitched using 200 denier Vectran® thread. Modified-lock stitch pattern is adopted, and stitch density is varied, viz. moderate density (stitched 6 × 6: stitch density = 2.8 cm⁻²) and high density (stitched 3 × 3: stitch density = 11.1 cm⁻²). The stitched preforms are then infiltrated by epoxy XNR/H6813 using resin transfer molding process. Tensile test is conducted to obtain in-plane mechanical properties (tensile strength, failure strain, tensile modulus and Poisson’s ratio). Effect of stitch density on the mechanical properties is assessed, and it is found that stitched 3 × 3 modestly improves the tensile strength by 10.4%, while stitched 6 × 6 reduces the strength by only 1.4%. In stitched 3 × 3 cases, the strength increase is mainly due to an effective impediment of edge-delamination. Tensile stiffness and Poisson’s ratio of carbon/epoxy are slightly reduced by stitching. Fiber misalignment in in-plane and out-of-plane directions is responsible for stiffness reduction, whilst reduction of Poisson’s ratio is probably caused by the orthogonal binding effect of modified-lock stitch architecture. Damage mechanisms in stitched and unstitched composites are studied using acoustic emission testing and interrupted test coupled with X-ray radiography and optical microscopy. The detailed damage observation reveals that stitch thread promotes early formation of transverse and oblique cracks. These cracks rapidly develop, and higher density of cracks ensues in stitched composites. Although this behavior triggers early formation of delamination, stitched 3 × 3 effectively impedes the growth the delamination. In contrast, stitched 6 × 6 is ineffective in suppressing the delamination yet the cracks are vast in this specimen. One of the plausible reasons of the rapid development of cracks in stitched composites is fiber compaction effect whereby fibers are compacted and the gap among fibers is reduced. The verification of compaction effect is done experimentally by performing burn-off test to measure the local fiber volume fraction. It is confirmed that fiber compaction indeed occurs as indicated by higher local fiber volume fraction between stitch lines.     

Numerical investigation of onset and evolution of LVI damages in Carbon–Epoxy plates

In order to study the onset and the evolution of low velocity impact damages in Carbon–Epoxy plates, a numerical investigation has been led. A detailed finite element model has been created by using the finite element code Abaqus® which, thanks to the different implemented algorithms, allowed considering both intra-laminar and inter-laminar failure criteria.In particular, the numerical modelling technique of such failure criteria allowed predicting delamination growth, by using special purpose-elements (cohesive elements) and fiber and matrix failure, by using Hashin criteria.Moreover, with the aim to reduce the required CPU time, a global/local finite element modelling approach has been proposed.For validation purpose, numerical results have been compared with data from two sessions of experimental impact tests. The considered impact energy values are 6 J, 10 J and 13 J respectively.     

Short shaped copper fibers in an epoxy matrix: Their role in a multifunctional composite

Previous research indicates that short shaped copper fibers improve the fracture and impact toughness of brittle thermoset polymer matrix composites. This paper investigates the potential multifunctional ability of these same shaped copper fibers by determining their electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding effectiveness (SE). Fiber shapes were selected based on previous single fiber pullout experiments where they displayed high toughness. The two fiber diameters tested were: 0.325 and 0.162 mm. Fiber shapes used in the experiments were: straight, flat end-impacted, rippled, and acid roughened. A SE of greater than 45 dB at 1.0 GHz was attained in epoxy that contained 15 vol% of 0.162 mm diameter shaped fibers. Composites with 15 vol% of the 0.325 mm diameter shaped fibers showed poor SE, less than 20 dB. Experimental results indicate that besides improving the fracture and impact toughness of a thermoset polymer matrix, short shaped copper fibers can also significantly improve the SE and electrical conductivity of the composite, resulting in a multifunctional material. This increase in SE and electrical conductivity can be attributed to: shape effects that increase the skin volume, surface discontinuities which increase the amount of electromagnetic (EM) wave scattering, and the fiber count which determines the number of conducting paths.