Temperature dependent flow softening of titanium alloy Ti6Al4V: An investigation using finite element simulation of machining

Titanium alloy Ti6Al4V is the most commonly used titanium alloy in the aerospace and medical device industries due to its superior properties. There has been a considerable amount of research to better understand the serrated chip formation mechanism of titanium alloy Ti6Al4V by using finite element simulation of machining. An accurate representation of the behavior of the material is important in order to obtain reliable results from the finite element simulation. Flow softening behavior has been integrated into the material constitutive models to simulate adiabatic shear bands and serrated chips. Flow softening is usually related to the dynamic recrystallization phenomenon which initiates after a critical temperature. The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of various flow softening conditions on the finite element simulation outputs for machining titanium alloy Ti6Al4V. For this purpose, a new flow softening expression, which allows defining temperature-dependent flow softening behavior, is proposed and integrated into the material constitutive model. The influence of flow softening below the critical temperature, as adopted in recent studies, is also investigated. Various temperature-dependent flow softening scenarios are tested using finite element simulations, and the results are compared with experimental data from the literature. The results showed that the flow softening initiating around 350-500 °C combined with appropriate softening parameters yields simulation outputs that agree well with the experimental measurements.     

Ti6Al4V钛合金的变形组织及织构

在温度850~930°C、应变速率0.01~1 s-1的条件下,对初始组织为等轴组织的Ti6Al4V钛合金进行变形程度为70%的热压缩变形实验,研究合金的变形组织及织构。结果表明,当温度低于900°C、应变速率高于0.1 s-1时,合金的组织主要是拉长的α晶粒;而在高于900°C以及低应变速率下,则会发生动态再结晶。电子背散射衍射（EBSD）结果显示,合金在再结晶过程中亚晶界吸收位错,最终形成大角晶界。在930°C时动态再结晶已基本完成,水冷至室温时形成针状α相。与原始组织相比,合金在930°C变形时织构得到增强,低于930°C变形时织构变弱。     

纳米压痕法测量Ti6Al4V钛合金室温蠕变应力指数

主要通过恒加载速率纳米压痕法的保载阶段测量了Ti6Al4V钛合金在室温下的蠕变应力指数n。通过给金刚石Berkovich压头施加不同的加载速率使其达到不同的最大载荷,观察加载速率和最大载荷对实验结果的影响。在最大载荷下,给压头保载5 min,通过保载过程中材料的压痕应变率和硬度之间的关系得到了该材料在常温下的蠕变应力指数n。结果表明,在特定范围内加载速率和最大载荷的变化对实验结果的影响微乎其微,可以忽略不计。最终测得Ti6Al4V钛合金在室温下蠕变应力指数的分布范围为7.0513~7.216。     

Plasma nitriding behavior of Ti6Al4V orthopedic alloy

The influence of plasma nitriding on mechanical, corrosion and tribological properties of Ti6Al4V has been investigated using X-ray diffraction, microhardness tester, scanning electron microscopy, pin-on-disc tribotester, electrochemical polarization and impedance spectroscopy. Plasma nitriding treatment of Ti6Al4V has been performed in 25%Ar-75%N₂ gas mixture, for treatment times of 1-4 h at the temperatures of 650-750 °C. The corrosion tests were carried out in Ringer solution at 37 °C, and the wear tests were performed in dry sliding conditions. XRD analyses confirm the formation of δ-TiN and tetragonal ?-Ti₂N phases in the modified layer. It was observed that the surface hardness and wear resistance increase as the treatment time and temperature increase. The electrochemical impedance measurements indicate a decrease in double layer capacitance value and increase in charge transfer resistance for the nitrided specimens compared to the untreated ones.     

Characteristics and wear performance of borided Ti6Al4V alloy

In this study, a 10 µm thick uniform boride layer, composed of TiB₂ and TiB phases, was formed on the surface of a Ti6Al4V alloy using a pack boriding technique. The hardness of the boride layer was over 2000 HV. Beneath the boride layer, a boron diffusion zone (BDZ) appeared with a thickness of about 50 µm. The microstructure of the BDZ was composed of randomly oriented TiB whiskers mixed with the structure of the base metal. In the BDZ, hardness decreased gradually towards the base metal owing to the reduction of the TiB volume fraction. The borided alloy exhibited excellent wear resistance along with a lower coefficient of friction against sapphire ball under both dry and smear lubricated sliding conditions when compared to the as-received state.     

Ti6Al4V合金表面热浸镀Ti-Al镀层相组成

采用热浸镀方法在Ti6Al4V合金表面制备Ti-Al镀层,并在1100 ℃高温下进行热扩散处理。结果表明,TC4合金热浸镀铝后在1100 ℃保温,形成了表面氧化层、过渡层及基体,表面氧化层和过渡层厚度随扩散时间延长而增加,表面氧化层主要由Al₂O₃和TiO₂构成,过渡层主要相为TiAl₃、Ti₂Al₅和Ti₁₉Al₆金属间化合物。     

Ti6Al4V合金等离子体基氧离子注入层的层状结构

采用等离子体基氧离子注入技术对Ti6Al4V合金进行表面改性。注入负脉冲电压分别为10、20、30、40、50kV，注入剂量为0．6×10^17ions／cm^2。用XPS分析了注氧层中元素的分布和化学态。结果显示，注入电压增加，氧的浓度深度分布增加。注入氧元素的浓度深度分布曲线不同于束线式注入氧元素的类高斯分布，表面氧浓度最大，随着深度的增加出现一个略倾斜的氧浓度平台，该平台的宽度随注入电压增加而增加。氧离子注入引起基体元素Ti、Al、V的浓深分布发生变化，近表面区域Ti的原子百分含量减少，Al的含量增高，而V未检测到。并且随着注入电压的增加，近表面区域富集Al的浓度明显增加，富Al贫V的区域也明显加大。注入样品的改性层具有相似的层状结构，由表及里依次为表面污染层、TiO2和Al2O3组成薄的外层、内层在改性层中占的比例最大，由TiO2、Ti2O3、TiO、Ti、Al、Al2O3．V和VO组成。     

Ti6Al4V合金显微组织对超声声速的影响

通过对Ti6Al4V合金棒材在β相区、α+β两相区热处理后的显微组织观察和纵向超声声速值测量、分析,研究了合金显微组织对超声声速的影响。结果表明,Ti6Al4V合金在相变点以上加热,随着冷速的降低,次生α析出长大为粗大片层状,声速值也随之提高;在相变点以下加热,组织中的初生α相含量对超声声速值的影响不明显,次生相的形貌对超声波声速起决定作用,其中规则片层次生α 相的析出有利于超声声速值的提高。     

Quantitative analysis of work hardening and dynamic softening behaviors of Cu-6 wt pct Ag binary alloy based on true stress vs strain curves

The work hardening and dynamic softening behaviors of Cu-6 wt pct Ag binary alloy were studied by hot compression tests under temperature range of 700-850℃ at strain rates of 0.01-10s-1.The critical conditions for the onset of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) were determined based on the conventional strain hardening rate curves (dσ/dε versus σ).The progress of DRX was analyzed by constructing a model of volume fraction of DRX based on flow curves.The strain rate sensitivity (SRS) and activation volume V were calculated.The results show that the DRX almost can happen under all deformation conditions even at high Z deformations where dynamic recovery (DRV) is the main softening mechanism.The DRX fraction curves can well predict the DRX behavior.The strain has significant effects on SRS at the strain rates of 0.01s-1 and 10s-1 which are mainly due to off-equilibrium saturation of dislocation storage and annihilation while the effects of the temperature on the SRS are based on the uniformity of microstructure distribution.The formation of "forest" of dislocation is contributed to the low activation volume V*(about 168b3) which is independent of Z values at the initial deformation.The cross-slip due to dislocation piled up beyond the grain boundaries or obstacles is related to the low activation volume under the high Z deformation conditions at high strain (ε=0.6) while the fine DRX grains coarsed is the main reason for the high activation volume at low Z under the same strain conditions.     

Ti6Al4V合金表面激光熔覆钛基复合涂层的显微组织研究

在Ti6Al4V合金表面预置Ti和Cr3C2混合粉末,采用横流CO2激光进行熔覆试验,制备出了原位自生的TiC颗粒增强的钛基复合涂层.利用SEM、XRD等手段对激光熔覆层的组织、成分、物相进行了分析,测试了激光熔覆层的显微硬度.结果表明,熔覆层不同位置,组织形态不同,TiC在熔覆层表层以树枝晶形态存在,而在熔覆层底部为近球状颗粒.熔覆层与基材之间形成良好的冶金结合.熔覆层显微硬度在600～800 HV0.5之间,约为基材硬度的2～3倍.     

Fretting wear of micro-arc oxidation coating prepared on Ti6Al4V alloy

Micro-arc oxidation(MAO)coating was prepared on Ti6Al4V alloy surface and its characterizations were detected by Vickers hardness tester,profilometer,scanning electric microscope(SEM),energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer(EDX)and X-ray diffractometer(XRD).Fretting wear behaviors of the coating and its substrate were comparatively tested without lubrication under varied displacement amplitudes(D)in a range of 3-40μm,constant normal load(Fn)of 300 N and frequency of 5 Hz.The results showed that the MAO coating,presenting rough and porous surface and high hardness,mainly consisted of rutile and anatase TiO2 phases.Compared with the substrate,the MAO coating could shift the mixed fretting regime(MFR)and slip regime(SR)to a direction of smaller displacement amplitude.In the partial slip regime(PSR),lower friction coefficients and slight damage appeared due to the coordination of elastic deformation of contact zones.In the MFR,the friction coefficient of the coating was lower than that of the substrate as a result of the prevention of plastic deformation by the hard ceramic surface.With the increase of the displacement amplitude,the degradation of the MAO coating and the substrate increased extremely.The fretting wear mechanisms of the coating were abrasive wear and delamination with some material transfer of specimen.In addition,the coating presented a better property for alleviating fretting wear.     

The effect of deep-case oxygen hardening on the tribological behaviour of a-C:H DLC coatings on Ti6Al4V alloy

A new duplex surface treatment combining the boost diffusion oxidation (BDO) treatment with amorphous hydrogenated diamond-like carbon hard coatings (BDO/a-C:H DLC) has been developed. Experiments results demonstrated that the BDO pre-treatment can effectively improve the scratch resistance and load bearing capacity of a-C:H DLC on Ti6Al4V. This is mainly because the hardened case in Ti6Al4V conferred by the BDO treatment can provide adequate mechanical support for the thin hard top carbon coating.     

Ti6Al4V合金表面离子铌合金化及其耐磨性能研究

采用双辉离子渗技术对Ti6Al4V钛合金表面渗Nb,利用扫描电子显微镜、X射线衍射仪、显微硬度计、磨损试验机、电化学测试系统研究钛合金表面离子渗Nb合金化层的形态、结构、力学性能、摩擦学性能和电化学腐蚀性能,并探讨渗Nb改性处理对钛合金在3.5%NaCl溶液中腐蚀磨损行为的影响.结果表明,渗Nb工艺参数对合金化层的形态、结构和性能影响显著,高浓度渗Nb合金化改性层表现出良好的强化效果,显著地改善了Ti6Al4V合金的抗大气环境和抗NaCl溶液腐蚀磨损性能.Ti6Al4V合金基材和渗Nb层的耐磨性能在NaCl溶液中优于大气环境,其原因归于溶液的润滑作用和试样的良好耐腐蚀性能.     

模拟体液中纯钛及Ti6A14V合金的腐蚀行为

采用电化学测试技术研究了人体医用金属材料工业纯钛和Ti6A14V合金在人工模拟体液中的腐蚀行为,结果表明,阳极极化后两种合金均未发现点蚀,工业纯钛的维钝电流密度小于于Ti6A14V合金,前者的阳极极化性能优于后者,Ti6A14V合金缝隙试样在阳极电位超过＋2000mV(vsSCE)后,电流开始急剧增大,发生了缝隙腐蚀;通过电子探针分析发现,在缝隙内Al和V两种元素发生活性溶解。工业纯钛在电位达到＋4000mV/(vsSCE）时仍没有发生缝隙腐蚀。     

Effects of coolant pressure on chip formation while turning Ti6Al4V alloy

This paper investigates the effect of the application of cutting fluid at high pressure during machining of titanium alloys. The application of high-pressure coolant during machining results in longer tool life and better surface finish on the machined material. In addition, the effect of coolant application pressure on the morphology of the machined chip has been investigated. A significant variation in the microstructure of the machined chip including the thickness of the shear bands and the serrated tooth structure for different coolant application pressures has been identified.     

钛合金表面渗氮层与TiAlN耦合涂层的结构及性能

研究了在钛合金表面渗氮-离子镀TiAlN膜复合处理与单一离子镀TiAlN膜处理工艺对钛合金力学性能、海水环境下的摩擦学的影响。采用SEM S4800、XRD、XPS、纳米压痕仪,观察了薄膜的表面及截面形貌,分析了渗氮后的钛合金表面、单涂层及复合涂层的相组成变化,化学成分和元素价态,测试了两种样品硬度随深度的变化。结果表明,复合涂层中择优取向(200)晶面明显,复合涂层渗氮后基底硬度增加,薄膜硬度下降速度慢,有利于提高涂层的耐磨性,且在海水润滑作用下,短时间摩擦过程中复合涂层的磨损量最小。     

Plasma nitriding of Ti6Al4V alloy to improve some tribological properties

The present study was conducted to investigate the tribological and mechanical properties of plasma-nitrided Ti---6Al---4V alloy. Specimens were nitrided in an H₂---N₂ (1:8 ratio) plasma. The nitrogen concentration along the nitrided zone was obtained using the nuclear reaction analysis technique. The workpiece temperature was varied from 450 to 520 °C during the nitriding process. Pin-on-disc wear tests were carried out to evaluate the wear properties of the resultant samples and a ball-on-disc experiment was conducted to measure the friction coefficient. Microhardness tests, Scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction were carried out to investigate the phases developed in the nitrided zone. It was found that the wear resistance improved considerably after the nitriding process. Three distinct layers were identified: (i) an inner layer where δ-TiN + -Ti₂N phases formed, (ii) an intermediate layer where -(TiN) with or without phase developed and (iii) an outer layer where precipitations were dominant.     

Ti6Al7Nb和Ti6Al4V合金的热氧化行为

在600～900℃温度下,0.5～72 h时间范围内空气气氛下对Ti6Al7Nb进行热氧化,根据增重曲线计算其氧化动力学规律,利用XRD、XPS分析表面氧化层的相组成、成分和价态,并以Ti6Al4V合金做为比照.结果表明,Ti6Al7Nb合金较Ti6Al4V合金抗氧化能力更强.同等氧化条件下,Ti6Al7Nb合金的氧化速率常数(k)更小.对短时间(1 h)氧化的样品的表面分析显示:各合金元素均以最高价态或稳定价态存在,其中Al和V被富集,而Nb则贫化;另外,Ti6Al7Nb合金和Ti6Al4V合金氧化层主要由金红石型TiO2(R-TiO2)组成,Al2O3相仅出现在900 ℃Ti6Al4V合金样品中.     

水热处理参数对Ti6Al4V合金微弧氧化膜HA生成的影响

采用微弧氧化的方法在Ti6Al4V合金表面生成一层富含Ca和P元素的氧化膜,对其进行水热处理,并生成具有生物活性的羟基磷灰石(HA)涂层.研究了处理介质为氨水(pH=10)时,水热处理温度、水热处理时间、冷却条件及填充度对水热处理后钛合金微弧氧化膜表面生成羟基磷灰石的影响.结果表明:随着处理温度和保温时间的延长,HA数量增多,颗粒增大;随釜冷却处理比空冷处理得到的HA更加粗大,并且分布更加均匀致密;填充度增加,HA分布趋于均匀但是形状趋向不规则.     

Lap joining 5052 aluminum alloy to Ti6Al4V titanium alloy by GTAW process with Al Si12 filler wire

The process of gas tungsten arc welding(GTAW) is applied with Al Si12 filler metal to weld 5052 aluminum alloy and Ti6Al4V titanium alloy in lap configuration. The welded lap joints showed dual features of welding and brazing on the aluminum and titanium parts of the joint, respectively. The continuous reaction layer established in the brazed area and its chemical composition by EDS analysis revealed that the intermetallic compounds(IMCs) layer of Ti(Al, Si)₃ phase formed and aluminum...