Response: Contrasting US and European Findings on Poverty Neighbourhoods

The US literature has produced more studies and thus more data on urban poverty areas. With respect to theory, the volume edited by Lynn & McGeary (1990) and the work of Wilson (1987) has been of great influence. The latter has been the basis of much work in Europe, such as the studies by Wacquant (1993) and Friedrichs (1998a). This paper will briefly review the similarities and differences between the US and the European findings.     

Changing contexts,critical moments and transitions: interim outcomes for children and young people living through involuntary relocation

The aim of this article is to understand how involuntary relocation – in the context of transformational regeneration – affects children and young people’s (CYP) interim outcomes through its impacts on residential contexts, and its intersections with their transitions and critical moments. Findings are based on a longitudinal qualitative study of 13 families’ (comprising 32 CYP) lives as they relocated from high rise flats to different housing and neighbourhoods over three years. Relocation altered two key contexts directly, home and neighbourhood, and may have indirectly altered the other contexts – peers, school and family. However, we found there were as many non-relocation related factors as relocation factors associated with outcomes, and a number of significant critical moments affecting CYP’s lives. Whilst relocation can seem the ‘big thing’ from the point of view of practitioners and researchers, from the perspective of CYP, it can seem a small part of the much bigger picture of change in their lives.     

Neoliberalism as entrepreneurial governmentality: contradictions and dissonance within contemporary English housing associations

Abstract

This paper has two aims: to provide a critical commentary on the value of neoliberalism in explaining contemporary housing policy and to critically examine recent practices that have been shaped by ideas most commonly associated with neoliberalism. It begins by distinguishing different interpretative variants of neoliberalism and some of the criticisms regarding its explanatory capability. Taking the example of housing associations in England, the paper makes use of Dardot and Laval’s notion of ‘entrepreneurial governmentality’ to interpret how contemporary welfare professionals attempt to reconcile the competing tensions of individualism and egalitarianism in practice. Amongst the arguments put forward is that the extension of commercialism, commodification and competition have generated new fissures and dissonance within the sector. The conclusion suggests that contemporary variants of neoliberalism are best understood as a rationality that establishes entrepreneurial governmentality across sectors of government, the economy and social life.     

Towards more Social Cohesion in Large Post-Second World War Housing Estates? A Case Study in Utrecht,the Netherlands1

The last few years have seen many studies of large post-Second World War housing estates. At present they are often the most deprived areas of European cities. The turnover of the population on these estates is characteristically rapid, leading to considerable socio-economic and socio-cultural changes and a multi-ethnic neighbourhood. Such areas often have to contend with severe physical, social and economic problems and the consequent dissatisfaction of the residents. This combination of rapid and selective population turnover and increasing numbers of problems may well affect aspects of social cohesion within these neighbourhoods, particularly the social networks. This process is regrettable, because social cohesion is regarded in a positive light, something that enhances the quality of life. Stimulating social cohesion is therefore an important objective of many policies that focus on large post-Second World War housing estates. The authors have found it interesting to discover how important social cohesion is in the opinions and the lives of the inhabitants rather than the policy makers. In their opinion, urban policies focus on social cohesion while the inhabitants' views of its relevance are unknown. On the basis of this paper, certain aspects of social cohesion in large post-Second World War housing estates appear to be valued, but housing market behaviour, such as residential moves, is hardly affected by aspects of social cohesion. Other aspects, such as moving to a better house, are much more relevant. The results may put into doubt the stress placed in urban policies on social cohesion.     

Housing Vacancy and the Shrinking City: Trends and Policies in the UK and the City of Liverpool

In the context of the discourse around shrinking cities, the aim of the paper was to try and better understand and differentiate the various types and causes of urban housing vacancy and to ask whether policy responses including planning policies appropriately reflect this variety. The paper briefly discusses the issue of shrinking cities, before considering theoretical explanations for housing vacancy and examining the relationships between population change, housing vacancy and policy responses in the Liverpool conurbation. Conclusions are then drawn about the nature of housing vacancy and the effectiveness of policy responses.     

Modernist housing estates in European cities of the Western and Eastern Blocs

The aim of this paper is to compare and contrast modernist housing projects in Western and Eastern Blocs built in the period of accelerated urban growth that took place mainly in the 1960s and 1970s. The obvious starting point is that cities in the Eastern Bloc were different from Western cities because of the distinct nature of their urban policies, the centrally planned economy, the absence of a free land market, the impact of industrialization on building construction, etc. However, there are many concepts in urban planning and design, as well as urban processes and urban forms, shared by both ideological systems and that can be clearly recognized in housing estates from that period.

This paper offers a comparative perspective of the nature of some of those modern Housing Estates built on both sides of the Iron Curtain such as Grands Ensembles in France, Großsiedlungen in Germany, Polígonos de viviendas in Spain, or Socialist Housing Estates equivalents in Eastern Bloc countries. The goal is to understand how mass housing forms were related to the modernist international urban culture of the Athens Charter and what was the role of urban design in the significant loss of environmental quality appreciable either in the West or in the East in those years of accelerated urban growth almost everywhere in Europe.     

Housing at the neighbourhood level: a review of the initial approaches to neighbourhood development plans under the Localism Act 2011 in England

The Localism Act 2011 created an opportunity for local communities to form neighbourhood forums and to prepare their own neighbourhood development plans in urban and rural areas in England. Initial reactions suggested that, rather than leading to the development of more housing, these initiatives would confirm all the stereotypes of local residents blocking unwanted development in their defined neighbourhoods. However, neighbourhood plans need to be in general conformity with the core strategies of higher-tier plans and often make provision for more new homes than planned before 2011. This article discusses the role and purpose of neighbourhood plans, the evidence base on which they are founded and some of the legal challenges which have helped clarify procedures. It then identifies two types of plan based on the ways housing strategies and evidence of need are reflected in a sample of 10 plans which have been made to date. It concludes that the voluntary nature of localism to date tends to favour more rural and affluent areas and ends with an assessment of the impact of neighbourhood plans on the planning process. It suggests that the implications for spatial planning may be far-reaching.     

日本公共租赁住宅的建设历程与经验教训

本文以日本住宅公团为代表的公共租赁住宅为例,分析建设历程中积累的很多经验教训,提出住宅不应只是一个空间,而必须成为普及新的生活方式和提高生活水平的道具;住宅建设也应该是包括维持管理、改造再生的长久和可持续的过程,同时普及产业化,促进生产力水平的提高,希望对我国现在进行的保障性住房的建设起到借鉴意义。     

Local Social Networks and Social Resources in Two Dutch Neighbourhoods

Much research in neighbour relations is inspired by two research questions. First, it is necessary to know to which degree social contacts are local and in particular whether local social contacts in disadvantaged neighbourhoods bear an instrumental disadvantage. Second, it is necessary to know whether policies aiming at mixing people from different social and ethnic backgrounds result in more diverse networks and therefore in better opportunities for low-income residents. To address these questions, this paper compares the role of local relationships and the social resources they provide in a low-income neighbourhood and a socio-economic mixed neighbourhood in the Netherlands. Contrary to assumptions in the research literature, residents in the low-income neighbourhood do not differ from their counterparts in the mixed neighbourhood in the degree to which they receive social support for dealing with everyday problems. However, networks of low-income residents provided fewer resources in terms of accessed prestige.     

Embedding financialization: a policy review of the English Affordable Homes Programme

Decent, affordable housing continues to be a major concern for policy-makers, providers and society at large. This paper contributes to the debate over the future of social housing in England by reviewing the Affordable Homes Programme (AHP). The AHP (2011–2015) saw the level of grant funding reduced dramatically; with the shortfall to be filled from housing associations own resources, increased rents and borrowing. To understand the implications of the AHP, this paper utilizes the concept of financialization. Financialization is a multifaceted process that seeks to explain the increased role and power of the financial markets in society. Specifically, the paper shows that the AHP leads to increased debt levels in the social housing sector, is predicated on short-termism and accumulation by dispossession. Finally, by employing financialization the paper also addresses debates about the nature of housing policy and how it can best be conceptualized.     

Competing visions: security of tenure and the welfarisation of English social housing

Recent legislation ending security of tenure for new council tenants in England may be considered emblematic of a US-style vision of social housing as a temporary welfare service, reserved only for the very poorest. But there is resistance amongst social landlords, many of whom remain committed to providing ‘homes for life’. Moreover, austerity-driven cuts mean that benefit-dependent households are increasingly refused social tenancies on grounds of affordability. The stage is therefore set for a battle over who and what English social housing is for. Drawing on large-scale qualitative research, this paper interrogates the implications of the mandatory extension of fixed-term tenancies (FTTs) by considering landlord and tenant experiences of the discretionary FTT regime in place since 2012. We conclude that the meagre likely benefits of FTTs, in terms of marginally increased tenancy turnover, are heavily outweighed by the detrimental impacts on tenants’ ontological security and landlords’ administrative burden.     

关于近期房地产政策“组合拳”的解读

为遏制当前住房供应结构不合理、价格虚高、投机盛行的势头,国家对房地产市场连续挥出“组合拳”。政策“组合拳”将调整住房供应结构、稳定住房价格作为主要调控目标,“安内”与“攘外”并重。针对建设层面,严控住房供应的户型配比,严控房地产企业资金供给,“保、限结合”控制土地供给;针对交易层面,严控被动性住房需求和外资投机需求,通过“卡住”投机资金供给和提高交易成本等手段,正确引导市场。结合对政策组合拳的深层次解读,对地方房地产市场调控细则和措施的制定提出建议。     

Renewing stigmatised estates in the Netherlands: A framework for image renewal strategies

Like in so many other European countries, the large housing estates of the post-World War II generation in the Netherlands did not fulfil the great and often Utopian expectations. Nowadays they are confronted with the effects of a negative image, a stigma. Images differ according to the persons asked for an opinion. Internal images, elicited from insiders, may overlap with external images but may also contradict them. The external image of many large estates accelerates their decay and lowers their reputation. All across Europe stigmatised large housing estates are subject to major renewal processes. The Amsterdam high-rise area of the Bijlmermeer is a good example. Once cheered by planners and politicians, later on criticised by inhabitants, avoided by outsiders and stigmatised by the media, the area is now an example of an impressive renewal programme. The question arises whether urban renewal will change a negative reputation. A stigma tends to stick, even after actual renewal activities are finished. Images of neighbourhoods can actively be promoted, just like a commercial product. Image promotion can be a supplementary strategy, which is seldom used in renewal processes. Which strategy would be the best depends on local circumstances, but strategies should be aimed at improving existing internal and external images. Image promotion may be directed to internal participants, to convince them the situation really is improving, or to outsiders, to promote the area and to counterbalance prejudices. Image promotion should not take the place of real improvements, but it is useful to work on a stigma and to give active image promotion explicit attention in any renewal process.     

The rise of gated housing estates in Ghana: Empirical insights from three communities in metropolitan Accra

In metropolitan Accra, Ghana’s economic and administrative hub, the global phenomenon of the gated housing estate is burgeoning, representing a substantial part of the new housing market. It has a recent history dating back only to the neoliberal era of the mid-1990s. Because it is a new phenomenon in Ghana very little is known about the motivations and contentment of residents, interactions within and outside the gates, and perceptions toward gated residents. This paper takes the first step by providing empirical insights from three communities (Manet Court, Devtraco Villas, and Regimanuel Estate) located in Metropolitan Accra. The data suggest that perceived concern for security is the primary motivation for the residents to live in these communities. Contrary to findings of other studies, the current research reveals that there are appreciable levels of interaction among the residents in these communities, although such interaction exists purely on the economic level, with gated housing estates providing a considerable level of low-income employment opportunities to surrounding residents. The paper concludes by identifying some of the key urban planning challenges that have so far accompanied gated housing development.     

Implementation of Urban Development in Sydney: Recent Experience and Future Issues

New urban development is viewed as primarily being about the production of housing and therefore closely related to housing policies. Recent innovations for implementing new urban development at the fringe of Sydney are commented on, and the possibility of increased servicing costs and consequent reduced housing affordability is raised. Given the scarcity of public funds and concern for housing output, the paper argues for moves towards a user-pays approach for pricing serviced land, but with greater assistance for housing output. Furthermore, it is suggested that the concern for avoiding scarcity and managing the supply of serviced land is secondary to the main aim of achieving housing ouput.     

Development Pathways of Large Housing Estates in Post-socialist Cities: An International Comparison

Large housing estates in former state-socialist countries had been hardly affected by social erosion before the political changes. However, the emergence of new, capitalist forms of housing after 1990 started to endanger the position of large housing estates on the local housing market. The question was repeatedly raised in the literature about whether large housing estates of post-socialist cities would experience physical decay and social downgrading similar to the West. This paper investigates the socio-economic differentiation of large housing estates in the former state-socialist countries using a case study approach. Housing satisfaction and mobility of residents in four post-socialist housing estates were analysed through a standardised household survey. Empirical data confirm that despite their similar physical appearance, the attitude of people towards large housing estates and their position on the local housing market vary significantly. The authors conclude that even though socialist large housing estates are affected by social downgrading, nevertheless they represent relative social stability and can offer affordable housing to people who are at the start of their housing career.     

Residential Satisfaction in Housing Estates in European Cities: A Multi-level Research Approach

This paper mainly focuses on the determinants of housing and estate satisfaction in post-Second World War housing estates. Multi-level linear regression models were applied to estimate the impacts of individual, dwelling and estate characteristics on resident satisfaction levels, using a unique dataset from 25 post-Second World War estates in nine European countries. It is concluded that satisfaction with the dwelling is higher for the elderly and residents with higher incomes, and in situations where the dwelling has been renovated and is sufficiently large. The presence of children and a longer duration of stay have negative impacts, and renters are generally more negative than owners. Estate satisfaction is highest among immigrant households or when the dwelling is renovated, and among lower educated inhabitants. Individual characteristics and opinions on the estate are more important than estate characteristics in explaining estate satisfaction. The overall conclusion is that attempts to improve post-Second World War areas may result in new areas, but does not necessarily improve the overall satisfaction.     

European urban development: Sustainability and the role of housing

In the new Millennium, sustainable urbandevelopment is becoming a fashionable topic,almost as popular as globalization or citycompetition. European countries differ widelyfrom each other on whether they have a nationalpolicy for urban development or not, and if so,on the emphasis of such a policy. Pan Europeanorganizations are reluctant to establish aclear vision of a desirable European pathtoward urban development. This is even true forthe European Union: although the EU is runningextensive systems of support policies, it hasno clear expectation of how European citiesshould develop or what they should look like inthe future. (The European Spatial DevelopmentPerspective, ESDP, contains some statementsabout desirable urban development, but this isfar from being a binding document or havingsubstantial influence on the allocation ofmeans of support.)The criticism leveled at the EU for having nocommon policy for the future of its citiesshould be seen in perspective, as the lack ofideas/patterns for sustainable urbandevelopment is even more visible in theaccession countries and in Eastern Europe. Thedramatic changes in the cities of thepost-socialist countries even appear to bemoving in the opposite direction – away fromsustainability.Sustainability is a complex phenomenon, havingeconomic, environmental and social aspects. Anyconcept of sustainable urban development mustincorporate sectoral concepts; these must bewell integrated in the overarching urban,regional and governance policies.One sectoral policy of great importance tosustainable development is housing. Withoutsuitable suggestions for housing policies, noconcept of sustainable development can besuccessful (and vice versa). Yet, housing isone of the less frequently discussed aspects ofsustainability. This might be explained by theway housing research has developed; economicand social aspects have taken precedence overenvironmental effects and externalities. Ofcourse, the fact that housing is not part ofthe common policies of the EU also helpsexplain the present situation.This paper elaborates on the link betweenhousing and urban development. Using examplesof good and not so good practices, we considerwhy housing experts should investigate theenvironmental and spatial externalities ofhousing policies and why experts working onurban development policies should take theresults of such analyses into account. Suchcollaboration could raise the status ofsustainable urban policies supported bysuitable housing policies.The analysis presented here pertains to theWestern and Central parts of Europe, roughly tothe area of the soon-to-be-enlarged EuropeanUnion.The structure of the paper is as follows. Thefirst chapter discusses models and trends ofurban development. The second chapter gives anoverview of policies with the potential toinfluence urban development, followed by goodand not so good examples for such policiestaken from both Western and Eastern Europe. Thethird and fourth chapters concentrate on largehousing estates, where interventions wereneeded to ensure the sustainability ofdevelopment. Finally, chapter five offers someconcluding remarks.     

重庆市对投资住宅产业化可供利用的优惠政策

主要介绍目前重庆市政府出台的外商投资优惠政策,并对重庆市的投资优惠政策进行分析和比较,针对住宅产业化的特点提出有益的政策建议,以加快推动重庆市推广住宅产业化的工作。