Water option contracts for climate change adaptation in Santiago,Chile

ABSTRACT

Climate change–induced extreme events pose an important challenge for urban water managers. In Santiago (Chile), the total cost of such events can be reduced by an option contract that sets ex ante water prices and water volumes to be traded when certain triggering conditions are met. This article discusses two types of option contracts: water leasing to trade water from agriculture to urban uses during droughts; and a savings option contract to reduce urban water consumption during short-term turbidity events. We find that water option contracts are flexible instruments that improve the distribution of hydrological risks.     

Techno-institutional models for managing water quality in rural areas: case studies from Andhra Pradesh,India

Abstract

This article examines the rationale, technologies, economics and institutional modalities in water quality management operations to draw lessons for designing policies for sustainable service delivery at scale. While the rationale for providing potable drinking water at affordable prices is clear, their economic viability is weak given their present scale of operations. There is a need for institutional safeguards for selection of deserving villages and water quality monitoring. It is argued that public–private–community partnerships are economically viable and sustainable. Adopting appropriate technologies could help with addressing the water quality issues in a more comprehensive manner.     

A comprehensive framework for analyzing co-production of urban water and sanitation services in the Global South

ABSTRACT

Co-production of water and sanitation services has become a widely discussed option for equitable and efficient service delivery, especially for cities of the Global South. Theoretical conceptualizations of service co-production mainly refer to the public management and governance dimension, while the techno-environmental and spatial dimensions are often disregarded in the literature. This article proposes a comprehensive framework for analyzing water and sanitation co-production based on cross-cutting literature, from public service management/governance to urban, socio-ecological and socio-technical fields. The proposed framework highlights the categories and factors to be considered when analyzing the background conditions and outcomes of unorthodox service delivery.     

The Performance of Water Service Industry Stock Prices and Sensitivity to Highly Publicized Contract Failures

Abstract

The water service industry has aggressively pursued contracts for the management or ownership of urban water utilities around the world. The industry has performed very well in terms of stock prices of publicly traded firms in comparison with the well-known stock price averages. However, there have been some widely publicized contract failures, the most dramatic being the cases of Cochabamba, Bolivia (2000) and Atlanta, Georgia, USA (2003). Such failures could discourage investment in the industry by depressing stock prices. A stock price index for a set of prominent firms is constructed that shows the highly favorable long term trend of WSI prices relative to the standard indexes. Then by using more formal “event analysis”, the study finds that there were no significant negative effects of the unfavorable events on the stock prices of the WSI sample. The formal announcements of these prominent contract cancellations apparently contained no surprises and little new information of industry-wide relevance because the industry was aware of the developing situations. Large firms in this risky industry build the expectation of occasional (even spectacular) failures into their company-wide plans.     

Water Treatment for Rural Areas with Emphasis on Sudan

ABSTRACT

Groundwater conditions in the South Coast Region of Kenya are examined in terms of the quantity and quality of the water derived from boreholes in the region. Both the quality and quantity are found to be generally acceptable for expected uses in the area A new parameter used to define the degree and sensitivity of violations in the quality conditions is introduced and demonstrated.     

Positive Implications of Hand-Dug Wells in Water Resources Planning and Management in A Developing Economy Such as in Nigeria

ABSTRACT

Hand-dug wells are circular holes. about one metre (m) in diameter and 10 to 30 m in depth, dug with human labour. The wells tap water from shallow aquifers for domestic water supply, small-scale industries, and small irrigation schemes. Many hand-dug wells exist in Nigeria and in many developing countries. They are important in both urban and rural communities.

The wells are dug with hoes, shovels, pickaxes and diggers. Water and cuttings are removed from the hole using a human-powered bucket-rope-pulley arrangement. Three to four men dig the well in shifts. Well construction cost is cheap, as low-scale technology and manpower are used.

Problems with hand-dug wells include susceptibility to pollution/contamination; drastic declines in water level during the dry season; low well yields; silting-up of wells, and caving-in or collapsing of well walls, etc.

New designs are suggested to improve the efficiency and performance of this ancient technology. In Nigeria, wells should be completed in March when the water level is deepest. Well yield is improved by using slotted concrete rings to screen the aquifer. Anti-pollution devices are also proposed for better water quality. Such wells would provide more potable water to the urban and rural poor.

An improved type of slotted concrete ring has been designed for use in the screened portion of the well. Non-perforated concrete rings are used in the non-productive portions of the aquifers or above the water table, to prevent caving or collapsing of Well walls. A convex cover forms a protective rim extending beyond the circumference of the well, to prevent the entrance of surface contaminants. Water from the dug-wells is pumped through an external filtration system into an overhead storage/treatment tank using an inexpensive pumping system.

All of these designs are suggested to improve the efficiency of the wells; to provide stability to the wells and better well yield, and to lessen the incidence of pollution/contamination within the well and its surrounding environment.     

Second World Congress on Engineering and Environment

ABSTRACT

Mexico's development has been tightly linked with water From the 1917 Political Constitution, where water was declared to be of national proprietorship, several federal laws have been enacted to promote development and regulate water use. Changes provoked by urban and industrial growth have influenced water quality and availability, making today's water management a task beyond government, where all actors in society must play a role.

In this framework River Basin Councils are an open and plural forum, in which f ederal, state, and municipal governments, water users, and society participate in water management. The first River Basin Council created in Mexico as an answer to water scarcity and pollution was Lerma-Chapala, in a populated, urban-rural river basin. To this day, this river basin organism is a successful venture with considerable advances in water allocation and treatment facilities, made possible by means of a regional spirit of responsibility and solidarity to solve a complex water agenda of priorities.

Mexico has assumed a commitment to implement at least thirteen River Basin Councils throughout the country. They will form a valuable asset to successfully cope with future challenges in the water sector     

Going Small When the City Grows Big

Abstract

Actual development of water and wastewater systems in towns is an outcome of several interrelated factors such as physical, economic, and social environments. Demography is also an important factor to consider in the formulation of development strategies. Too often in policy papers, population increase only serves as an argument for urgent action, but rarely as a factor in its own right that affects chances of improving a grave situation. A model is developed to generate water management options in urban areas related to population growth. A hypothesis is that management should go small in periods when the city expands rapidly. A study is presented of the development of water and sanitation in the town of Kisumu in Kenya on the shore of Lake Victoria during last century. The aim is to describe and analyze actual development in the water sector and to foresee what prospective developments could be identified in light of continued rapid population growth. The slow growth of the town in the colonial period allowed towns to adequately meet the needs of all residents for water. The extremely rapid population growth after Independence in 1963 interacted with other factors to cause a successive deterioration of residents access to water and sewage disposal.     

Quantifying and managing urban water-related energy use systemically: case study lessons from Australia

Abstract

In this paper, three Australian case studies contribute to improved understanding of water-related energy quantification and management. A systems analysis of urban water in South East Queensland (Case Study 1) demonstrates the energy impact of water end use. In Melbourne (Case Study 2), water–energy interlinkages are explored within households. Finally, Case Study 3 in Sydney shows how abatement curves can help guide management action. Collectively, the case studies provide new information for least-cost solutions and simultaneous water and energy efficiency. The work highlights the need for frameworks to characterize and evaluate both the direct and indirect energy influences of urban water.     

Economic Aspects of Soil Conservation Programs in Less-Developed Countries (LDCs)

ABSTRACT

This article evaluates the prospects for rainfall-runoff water harvesting as a means of increasing water supplies in Greater Amman and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Rain/all-runoff water harvesting is a small-scale water conservation approach for catching/storing rainfalls and certain runoff waters in a localized area. before the waters enter the usual hydrologic cycle. Generally the methods are small basic impounding concepts as compared with larger-scale river dams and reservoirs. Catchment of rainfall drainage from a building roof with tank storage is the commonest practice. This is an age-old practice used to sustain populations, mostly in arid areas of the world, but also in areas where water distribution systems are unavailable. In the following text, water harvesting yields are calculated for residential roofs and for the potential from commercial and industrial areas. as of 1990 and projected to 2005. The results show that rainfall-runoff water harvesting is an increasingly attractive consideration in arid areas facing acute water supply shortages, for both villages and urban centers.     

Factors Influencing Per Capita Water Consumption In Urban Areas Of Developing Countries And Their Implications For Management,With Special Reference To The Khartoum Metropolitan Area

ABSRTACT

The fast growing population in Third World countries and the limited physical resources in rural areas have led to the dramatic expansion of the urban areas of these countries. It is now recognized that when planning for the development of these areas, early consideration must be given to the difficulties and cost of providing potable water equitably to all users. Detailed studies are necessary for particular situations so as to provide a basis for better management practices.

Khartoum, a growing urban area in Sudan, has been chosen as a case study. A proposed framework and technique of analysis is shown. Factors influencingper capita consumption are correlated and mathematical models have been generated for the two distinct classifictions of consumers: (1) consumers with piped supply and (2) consumers obtaining water from water vendors or from standpipes (squatter settlements).

The most significant factors affecting the consumption appear in the fitted equations. Of these factors, the number of occupants in the household influences the per capita consumption but at a decreasing rate. Price has a significant impact on demand: price elasticities of about -0.60 and -0.78 are obtained for households with piped connections and squatter areas respectively. Water utility authorities can use price as a tool to ration or discourage water consumption in the piped connection households and to increase the rate of consumption in the squatter areas.     

Water conservation through trade: the case of Kenya

This study quantifies and maps the water footprint of Kenya from both production and consumption perspectives and estimates the country’s virtual water export and import. Kenya’s virtual water export related to trade in agricultural products was 4.1 km³/y; its virtual water import was 4.0 km³/y. The average export earning per unit of water consumed or polluted in producing agricultural export products was USD 0.25/m³, while the average expenditure on imported commodities per unit of virtual water imported was USD 0.10/m³. In addition to increasing water productivity in crop production, Kenya can mitigate its water scarcity by increasing imports of water-intensive products such as cereals and exports of high-value products such as cut flowers, vegetables, spices and tea.     

The rural–urban equity nexus of Metro Manila’s water system

ABSTRACT

This article examines equity concerns and inherent conflicts related to rural–urban water supply allocation and use, with focus on Metro Manila. Going beyond the much-discussed difficulty farmers experience from an allocation policy prioritizing urban water requirements, it shows that inequity in raw water allocation is linked to, and further exacerbated by, inequities in urban domestic water provision. Moreover, it highlights the need for broader equity reviews, using the concept of the rural–urban water equity nexus to draw attention to key equity considerations across space and scale that otherwise might remain invisible.     

Thirsty slums in African cities: household water insecurity in urban informal settlements of Lilongwe,Malawi

ABSTRACT

Over 70% of Malawi’s urban population lives in informal settlements, where households regularly face chronic water insecurity. This article utilizes mixed methods – household surveys (N = 645), field observations, focus groups and interviews – to examine household water insecurity in three urban informal settlements of Lilongwe, Malawi’s capital and largest city. The study finds that water insecurity arises from overdependence on communal water kiosks which are insufficient in number, have high nonfunctional rates, are prone to vandalism, and provide water irregularly; lack of alternative improved water sources; and a significant time burden due to long waiting times and multiple trips to water sources. The findings underscore why water insecurity in Africa’s urban informal settlements deserves urgent policy attention.     

Water transfer from irrigation tanks for urban use: can payment for ecosystem services produce efficient outcomes?

Abstract

Many Indian states have begun to transfer water meant for irrigation to non-agricultural purposes, but the economic and environmental consequences are not adequately understood. Transfer of water out of water bodies from rural areas not only reduces the economic welfare of the traditional water users but also reduces their incentives to manage these water bodies on a sustainable basis. The study explores the possibility of introducing the mechanism of ‘payment for ecosystem services’ at the grass-roots level in the Indian context as a return for reallocation of water from irrigation to urban uses so that it can produce a non-zero-sum outcome for villagers, farmers, urban consumers and governments.     

Reusing Urban Wastewater—An Alternative and a Reliable Water Resource

ABSTRACT

Fundamental concepts of reusing urban wastewater as an alternative and a reliable source of water supply are discussed, along with the categories for water reuse, planning methodologies, wastewater reclamation technologies, and economics. The rational basis for integration of urban reclaimed water into water resources planning is proposed and the safe use of reclaimed water is evaluated. Special attention is paid to tertiary or advanced wastewater treatment systems that are capable of producing essentially pathogen-free effluent for a variety of uses such as irrigation of urban landscape, flushing of toilets served by dual plumbing systems in large commercial buildings, and groundwater recharge for eventual potable reuse. The motivating factors for wastewater reclamation and reuse are summarized and the costs of water reclamation projects are discussed with several examples. The integration of this alternative water supply into water resources planning is proposed and the safe use of reclaimed water is emphasized.     

Water and Sustainable Development in Ghana

Abstract

Water is vital for the survival and development of every community or society. The health of a given community is reflected to a large extent in the water quality of the community's available water resources. In Ghana, efforts have been made since colonial days to supply both the urban and the rural communities with potable water to enhance the rapid socio-economic development of the country. It is economically viable due to the remoteness of most of the rural communities to supply them with potable water from local sources such as groundwater. The urban water supply systems are mainly based on surface water sources. With the ever-expanding population, there is a need to improve freshwater resources conservation and management in order to avoid impending shortages. To ensure the total coverage of all rural and urban communities by the year 2020, a huge capital outlay of $1 billion and 51.5 billion, respectively, is needed. Most of these funds are expected to come from the private sector, both local and foreign, with the Government making some substantial contribution.     

Water Right Prices in the Rio Grande: Analysis and Policy Implications

Climate change, water supply limits, growing environmental values of water and worldwide population growth continue to raise the scarcity of water. These challenges have intensified the transfer of water from farms to cities. Water right transfers are an important international institution to stretch water supplies. In North America's Rio Grande Basin water right transfers are an especially important institution for meeting the growth in urban demands. Despite the importance of water right transfers as a social institution, sellers face uncertainty on the asking price, while buyers face similar uncertainty on the offer price. Weak information on water right prices stymies water transfers while limiting the future resilience of water transfers to address climate change and the need to cope with change in water supplies and demands. This paper describes the development of a database on water right prices using observed transactions from 1980 to 2007. An empirical model was developed using the data to identify important factors influencing those prices. Five water right price predictors were found to be significant: total regional urban water use, priority date of the water right, quantity of water rights offered for sale, regional reservoir storage volume, and regional farm income. Depending on the future status of food scarcity and urban water conservation programmes, water right prices in the basin could grow from zero to 27% over 2010–2020.     

Payment for ecosystem services in Lima’s watersheds: power and imaginaries in an urban-rural hydrosocial territory

ABSTRACT

In Peru, payment for ecosystem services is an increasingly popular mechanism to secure the transfer of water from rural to urban areas. This article analyzes the process of setting up such a scheme in the watersheds of Lima. The concept of hydrosocial territories and a power analysis are used to scrutinize how urban-based imaginaries and top-down approaches result in a disregard of local knowledge, rationalities, history of urban–rural relations and land ownership structures in the highlands. This could result in unintended outcomes of the scheme and in subordinating upstream communities to the city’s needs.     

Developing new urban water supplies: investigating motivations and barriers to groundwater use in Cape Town

ABSTRACT

Many cities are experiencing increasing water resource stress. In Cape Town, South Africa, surface water supplies are at a record low due to a multi-year drought crisis which began in 2015. This paper analyzes the range of motivations, possibilities and obstacles related to diversifying Cape Town’s water supply system through the upscaling of groundwater resources. Drawing on insights from local experts, it is maintained that uncertainty surrounding groundwater and drought-management practices present significant barriers to Cape Town’s ongoing water diversification efforts. This paper provides further insight and discussion for future water planning in Cape Town, as well as for other urban, water-scarce, regions.