Tensile properties of a poly(vinyl chloride) composite filled with poly(methyl methacrylate) grafted to oil palm empty fruit bunches

The influence of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fiber and oil palm empty fruit bunches grafted with poly(methyl methacrylate) (OPEFB‐g‐PMMA) on the tensile properties of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) was investigated. The OPEFB‐g‐PMMA fiber was first prepared with the optimum conditions for the grafting reaction, which were determined in our previous study. To produce composites, the PVC resin, OPEFB‐g‐PMMA fiber or ungrafted OPEFB fiber, and other additives were first dry‐blended with a laboratory blender before being milled into sheets on a two‐roll mill. Test specimens were then hot‐pressed, and then the tensile properties were determined. A comparison with the composite filled with the ungrafted OPEFB fiber showed that the tensile strength and elongation at break increased, whereas Young's modulus decreased, with the incorporation of 20 phr OPEFB‐g‐PMMA fiber into the PVC matrix. The trend of the tensile properties obtained in this study was supported by functional group analysis, glass‐transition temperature measurements, and surface morphological analysis. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

Preparation and structural characterization of nanocrystalline poly(vinyl chloride)

This article describes the development of novel nanocrystalline poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) for potential applications in PVC processes and reports improvements in the mechanical properties and thermal resistance. Before the preparation of nanocrystalline PVC via jet milling, PVC was spray‐treated and heat‐treated to improve its crystallinity. The pulverization and degradation, morphology, crystalline structure, and melting‐point changes of postmodified PVC during jet milling and the relationship between the distributions of the particle size and processing temperature were investigated. X‐ray analysis and density testing indicated increased density and improved crystallinity. The crystalline region of nanocrystalline PVC was less than 80 nm, with a particle size distribution of 5–20 μm and a melting point of less than 128°C. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 91: 563–569, 2004     

Novel multimonomer‐grafted polypropylene preparation and application in polypropylene/poly(vinyl chloride) blends

A novel grafted polymer was prepared in one step through free‐radical melt grafting in a single‐screw extruder. It was shown that the addition of styrene (St) to the melt‐grafting system as a comonomer could significantly enhance the grafting degree of methyl methacrylate (MMA) onto polypropylene (PP) and reduce the degradation of the PP matrix by means of Fourier transform infrared and melt flow rate testing, respectively. Then, the potential of using multimonomer‐grafted PP, which was designated PP‐g‐(St‐co‐MMA), as the compatibilizer in PP/poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) blends was also examined. In comparison with PP/PVC blends, the average size of the dispersed phase was greatly reduced in grafted polypropylene (gPP)/PVC blends because of the addition of the PP‐g‐(St‐co‐MMA) graft copolymer. The tensile strength of the gPP/PVC blends increased significantly, and the impact strength was unchanged from that of the pure PP/PVC blends. The results of differential scanning calorimetry and scanning electron microscopy suggested that the compatibility of the PP/PVC blends was improved. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008     

Preparation and characterization of poly(butyl acrylate‐co‐2‐ethylhexyl acrylate) grafting of vinyl chloride resin with good impact resistance

Crosslinked poly(butyl acrylate‐co‐2‐ethylhexyl acrylate) [P(BA–EHA)] latex was synthesized by seeded emulsion polymerization. P(BA–EHA)/poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) composite latex was prepared using P(BA–EHA) latex as the seed. The effects of the amount of P(BA–EHA) on the latex particle diameters and mechanical properties of the materials are discussed. The grafting efficiency (GE) of P(BA–EHA)‐grafted vinyl chloride (VC) in the synthesized resin was investigated, and the GE increased with an increasing P(BA–EHA)/VC ratio. The morphology of P(BA–EHA)/PVC was characterized using TEM, SEM, and DMA. TEM indicated that the particles of the P(BA–EHA)/PVC composite latex have a clear core–shell structure. DMA illustrated that the compatibility between P(BA–EHA) and PVC was well improved. With an increasing P(BA–EHA) content, the loss peak in the low‐temperature range became stronger than that of pure PVC, and the maximum values of the loss peaks gradually shifted to higher temperature. SEM showed that the fractured surface of the composite sample exhibited better toughness of the material. The notched impact strength of the material with 4.2 wt % P(BA–EHA) was 11 times that of PVC. TEM showed that P(BA–EHA) was uniformly dispersed in the PVC matrix and that the interface between the two phases was indistinct. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 90: 643–649, 2003     

Solid‐state grafting of succinic anhydride onto poly(vinyl alcohol)

The graft reaction of succinic anhydride onto poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) was catalyzed by p‐toluenesulfonic acid monohydrate in solid state. The infrared spectra and ¹H‐NMR spectra confirmed that succinic anhydride was successfully grafted onto PVA backbone. The influences of reaction temperature, reaction time, the amount of succinic anhydride, and the amount of catalyst on the graft reaction were studied. Uncrosslinked PVA graft copolymer with grafting degree up to about 6.5% could be obtained under low reaction temperature, short reaction time, and low amount of catalyst, whereas crosslinked PVA with high gel content could be obtained under high reaction temperature, long reaction time, and high amount of catalyst. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 103: 848–852, 2007     

Blends of plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) and waste flexible poly(vinyl chloride) with waste nitrile rubber powder

Blends of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) with varying contents of plasticizer and finely ground powder of waste nitrile rubber rollers were prepared over a wide range of rubber contents through high‐temperature blending. The effects of rubber and plasticizer (dioctyl phthalate) content on the tensile strength, percentage elongation, impact properties, hardness, abrasion resistance, flexural crack resistance, limiting oxygen index (LOI), electrical properties, and breakdown voltage were studied. The percentage elongation, flexural crack resistance, and impact strength of blends increased considerably over those of PVC. The waste rubber had a plasticizing effect. Blends of waste plasticized PVC and waste nitrile rubber showed promising properties. The electrical properties and LOI decreased with increasing rubber and plasticizer content. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 91: 1552–1558, 2004     

Preparation and thermomechanical characterization of poly(vinyl chloride) blends compatible with terpolymer‐containing maleic anhydride

In this study, I aimed to change the thermomechanical characteristics of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), which is widely used in commercial areas. Copolymers containing maleic anhydride (MA) units are commonly used to obtain compatible polymer blends. In our study, PVC blends were also prepared with the terpolymers with and without anhydride units. I assumed that the impact of the terpolymer on the thermomechanical characteristics of the PVC material could be more effectively controlled. For this purpose, two sets of six different blends of PVC with or without MA were synthesized, among which one was pure PVC, but the other five blends contained 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10% terpolymer. In conclusion, I observed that the terpolymer with the MA unit more regularly changed the thermomechanical characteristics of PVC. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 94: 1586–1589, 2004     

Preparation and characterization of poly(vinyl chloride)‐graft‐acrylic acid membrane by electron beam

Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) was irradiated by electron beam in vacuum at 20 KGy to produce living free radicals, and then reacted with acrylic acid (AA) in solution to obtain the PVC‐g‐AA copolymers. The copolymers were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Porous membranes were prepared from copolymers by the phase inversion technique. The morphology of PVC‐g‐AA membranes was studied by field emission scanning electron microscopy. The mean pore size and pore size distribution were determined by a mercury porosimeter. The mean pore size was 0.19 μm, and the bulk porosity was 56.02%. The apparent static water contact angle was 89.0°. The water drop penetration rate was 2.35 times to the original membrane. The maximum stress was 4.10 MPa. Filtration experiments were carried out to evaluate the fouling resistance of the PVC‐g‐AA membrane. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 2007     

Preparation of chlorinated poly(vinyl chloride)‐g‐poly(N‐vinyl‐2‐pyrrolidinone) membranes and their water permeation properties

Chlorinated poly(vinyl chloride) (CPVC) membranes for microfiltration processes were prepared with the combined process of a solvent evaporation technique and the water‐vapor induced‐phase‐inversion method. CPVC membranes with a mean pore size of 0.7 μm were very hydrophobic. These membranes were subjected to surface modification by ultraviolet (UV)‐assisted graft polymerization with N‐vinyl‐2‐pyrrolidinone (NVP) to increase their surface wettability and decrease their adsorptive fouling. The grafting yields of the modified membranes were controlled by alteration of UV irradiation time and NVP monomer concentration. The changes in chemical structure between the CPVC membrane and the CPVC‐g‐poly(N‐vinyl‐2‐pyrrolidinone) membrane and the variation of the topologies of the modified PVC membranes were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, gel permeation chromatography, and field emission scanning electron microscopy. According to the results, the graft yield of the modified CPVC membrane reached a maximum at 5 min of UV exposure time and 20 vol % NVP concentration. The filtration behavior of these membranes was investigated with deionized water by a crossflow filtration measurement. The surface hydrophilicity and roughness were easily changed by the grafting of NVP on the surface of the CPVC membrane through a simultaneous irradiation grafting method by UV irradiation. To confirm the effect of grafting for filtration, we compared the unmodified and modified CPVC membranes with respect to their deionized water permeation by using crossflow filtration methods. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 88: 3188–3195, 2003     

Rheological behavior and thermal properties of poly(butyl acrylate‐co‐2‐ethylhexyl acrylate)‐grafted vinyl chloride resin

The rheological behavior and thermal properties of a poly(butyl acrylate‐co‐2‐ethylhexyl acrylate) [P(BA‐EHA)]‐grafted vinyl chloride (VC) composite resin [P(BA‐EHA)/poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)] and its materials were investigated. The rheological behavior, thermal stability, and Vicat softening temperature (VST) of P(BA‐EHA)/PVC were measured with capillary rheometry, thermal analysis, and VST testing, respectively. The effects of the P(BA‐EHA) content and the polymerization temperature of grafted VC on the rheological behavior of the composite resin were examined. The weight loss of the composite resin and its extracted remainder via heating were analyzed. The influence of the content and crosslinking degree of P(BA‐EHA) and the polymerization temperature of the grafted VC on VST of the materials was determined. The results indicated the pseudoplastic‐flow nature of the composite resin. The flow property of the modified PVC resin was improved because of the incorporation of the acrylate polymer. The molecular weight of PVC greatly influenced the flow behavior and VST of the composite resin and its materials. The flowability of the composite resin markedly increased, and the VST of its materials decreased as the polymerization temperature of the grafted VC increased. The initial degradation temperature of the composite resin increased as the P(BA‐EHA) content increased. The VST of the samples was enhanced a little as the content of the crosslinking agent increased in P(BA‐EHA). As expected, the composite resin, with good impact resistance, had better heating stability and flowability than pure PVC, whereas the VST of the material decreased little with increasing P(BA‐EHA) content. Therefore, P(BA‐EHA)/PVC resins prepared by seeded emulsion polymerization have excellent potential for widespread applications. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 95: 419–426, 2005     

Amphiphilic poly(vinyl chloride)‐g‐poly[poly(ethylene glycol) methylether methacrylate] copolymer for the surface hydrophilicity modification of poly(vinylidene fluoride) membrane

In this study, a comblike amphiphilic graft copolymer containing poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) backbones and poly(oxyethylene methacrylate) [poly(ethylene glycol) methylether methacrylate (PEGMA)] side chains was facilely synthesized via an atom transfer radical polymerization method. Secondary chlorines in PVC were used as initial sites to graft a poly[poly(ethylene glycol) methylether methacrylate] [P(PEGMA)] brush. The synthesized PVC‐g‐P(PEGMA) graft copolymer served as an efficient additive for the hydrophilicity modification of the poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) membrane via a nonsolvent‐induced phase‐inversion technique. A larger pore size, higher porosity, and better connectivity were obtained for the modified PVDF membrane; this facilitated the permeability compared to the corresponding virgin PVDF membrane. In addition, the modified PVDF membrane showed a distinctively enhanced hydrophilicity and antifouling resistance, as suggested by the contact angle measurement and flux of bovine serum albumin solution tests, respectively. Accordingly, the PVC‐g‐P(PEGMA) graft copolymer was demonstrated as a successful additive for the hydrophilicity modification, and this study will likely open up new possibilities for the development of efficient amphiphilic PVC‐based copolymers for the excellent hydrophilicity modification of PVDF membranes. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013     

Soiling of plasticized poly(vinyl chloride)

The effects of three plasticizers and two plasticizer concentrations on the topography and soiling of poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) were studied. Palmitic acid and triolein were chosen to represent solid and liquid soils. The feasibility of using infrared spectroscopy to quantify the amount of soil on PVC was examined. The structure of the solid model soil on plasticized PVC was studied with optical microscopy and atomic force microscopy. Palmitic acid formed two different structures on the PVC surface. Both the type and concentration of the plasticizer influenced the structure of the oily soil on plasticized PVC. The wetting of plasticized PVC with the liquid oily soil was compared to wetting with water through the measurement of the contact angles. Plasticized PVC was hydrophobic and oleophilic. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 2007     

Preparation and characterization of poly(vinyl chloride)–continuous carbon fiber composites

In this article, we report on the preparation and characterization of novel poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)–carbon fiber (CF) composites. We achieved the reinforcement of PVC matrices with different plasticizer contents using unidirectional continuous CFs by applying a warm press and a cylinder press for the preparation of the PVC–CF composites. We achieved considerable reinforcement of PVC even at a relatively low CF content; for example, the maximum stress (σ_max) of the PVC–CF composite at a 3% CF content was found to be 1.5–2 times higher than that of the PVC matrix. There were great differences among the Young's modulus values of the pure PVC and PVC–CF composites matrices. The absolute Young's modulus values were in the range 1100–1300 MPa at a 3% CF content; these values were almost independent of the plasticizer content. In addition, we found a linear relationship between σ_max and the CF content and also recognized a linear variation of the Young's modulus with the CF content. The adhesion of CF to the PVC matrix was strong in each case, as concluded from the strain–stress curves and the light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy investigations. The mechanical properties of the PVC–CF composites with randomly oriented short (10 mm) fibers were also investigated. At low deformations, the stiffness of the composites improved with increasing CF content. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) was used to determine the glass‐transition temperature (T_g) of the PVC–CF composites. The high increase in the Young's modulus entailed only a mild T_g increase. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012     

Synthesis and characterization of poly(vinyl chloride‐co‐vinyl acetate)‐graft‐poly[(meth)acrylates] by atom transfer radical polymerization

The graft polymerization of methyl methacrylate and butyl acrylate onto poly(vinyl chloride‐co‐vinyl acetate) with atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) was successfully carried out with copper(I) thiocyanate/N,N,N′,N′,N″‐pentamethyldiethylenetriamine and copper(I) chloride/2,2′‐bipyridine as catalysts in the solvent N,N‐dimethylformamide. For methyl methacrylate, a kinetic plot of ln([M]₀/[M]) (where [M]₀ is the initial monomer concentration and [M] is the monomer concentration) versus time for the graft polymerization was almost linear, and the molecular weight of the graft copolymer increased with increasing conversion, this being typical for ATRP. The formation of the graft polymer was confirmed with gel permeation chromatography, ¹H‐NMR, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The glass‐transition temperature of the copolymer increased with the concentration of methyl methacrylate. The graft copolymer was hydrolyzed, and its swelling capacity was measured. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 96: 183–189, 2005     

Networks of photocrosslinked poly(meth)acrylates in linear poly(vinyl chloride)

Five different multifunctional acrylic monomers (trimethylolpropane triacrylate, trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate, pentaerythritol triacrylate, pentaerythritol tetraacrylate, and dipentaerythritol pentaacrylate) were photopolymerized alone or in a matrix of linear poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) with 2,2‐dimethyl‐2‐hydroxyacetophenone as a photoinitiator. The course of photopolymerization was estimated with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The amount of insoluble gel formed during photopolymerization was determined gravimetrically. The crosslinked polymerization of pure monomers was much faster than that in the presence of PVC. However, the efficiency of the reaction was higher when it was carried out in a PVC blend because of the higher mobility of the propagating macroradicals. The influence of the monomer structure and functionality on the polymerization course was examined. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 86: 3725–3734, 2002     

Rheology of poly(vinyl chloride) plastisol for superhigh shear‐rate processing. I

In coating operations with poly(vinyl chloride) plastisol, there is a high shear limit because the flow becomes unstable. However, there is an indication that the flow becomes stable at superhigh shear rates well past the unstable region. This article explores the effect of the particle size (with a similar size distribution spread) and the effect of the amount of the emulsifier on the flow at superhigh shear rates. It has been known that below the flow instability, larger particles lead to a lower viscosity, and an increased amount of the emulsifier leads to a higher viscosity. The question is whether or not the same trends persist at superhigh shear rates. Observations in this study confirm these trends. In addition, the emulsifier has been found to enhance the interparticle attraction. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

Absorption of trioctyl trimellitate into mass‐polymerization and suspension‐polymerization poly(vinyl chloride)

Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) slush powder has been widely used; we prepared it by dry blending. We found that the absorption of plasticizer by the PVC resins was the most important factor in the dry‐blending process and, further, that different types of PVC resin had different absorption rates. This results of this study provide new information about the relationship of absorption to PVC and other parameters. Haake rheomix testing and the quantity of plasticizers absorbed by the PVC resins were used to characterize the absorption process. Suspension‐polymerization poly(vinyl chloride) (SPVC) and mass‐polymerization poly(vinyl chloride) (MPVC) in different sizes were used for the test. The results showed that the MPVC absorbed the plasticizer more quickly than SPVC, especially at a higher temperature. However, for the same PVC resin type, the absorbing speeds were nearly independent of particle size. The studies that used a scanning electric microscope and specific surface area revealed that the morphology of the two types of particles was different. The surfaces of the individual particles of SPVC were smoother than those of MPVC. There was a “skin” covering the SPVC particles, whereas with the MPVC particles, the primary polymer was exposed directly on the surface. This difference in morphology was shown to be a significant factor in the different rates of absorption of the plasticizers for the different PVC resins. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 92: 2369–2374, 2004     

Mechanochemical preparation of a novel polymeric photostabilizer for poly(vinyl chloride)

The preparation of a novel polymeric photostabilizer was carried out via the vibromilling of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) powder, a reactive light stabilizer (r‐LS), and a peroxide initiator in ball‐containing jars with a planetary ball mill for a certain time. The effects of the initiator content, milling time, and temperature on the grafting ratio were studied with gravimetric analysis and intrinsic viscosity measurements. Fourier transform infrared and ultraviolet–visible spectra were used to investigate the structural development of the mixture of the r‐LS and PVC during vibromilling. The results showed that the r‐LS was grafted onto PVC chains successfully, and the aforementioned factors had a significant effect on the grafting ratio. The optimum preparation conditions were 0.5 wt % initiator, 8 h, and 20°C. A grafting mechanism is proposed. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

Improving the antifouling property of poly(vinyl chloride) membranes by poly(vinyl chloride)‐g‐poly(methacrylic acid) as the additive

To improve the antifouling property of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) membranes, a series of poly(methacrylic acid) grafted PVC copolymers (PVC‐g‐PMAA) with different grafting degree were synthesized via one‐step atom transfer radical polymerization process utilizing the labile chlorines on PVC backbones followed by one‐step hydrolysis reaction. PVC/PVC‐g‐PMAA blend membranes with different grafting degree and copolymer content were prepared by nonsolvent induced phase separation method. The surface chemical composition, surface charge, membrane structures, wettability, permeability, separation performances and the fouling resistance of blend membranes were carefully investigated. The results indicated that the PMAA chains were segregated towards the surface and the membranes were endowed with negative charge. The hydrophilicity and permeability of the blend membranes were obviously improved. Furthermore, the antifouling ability especially at neutral or alkaline environments was also significantly increased. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015 , 132, 42745.     

Formation of conjugated carbon bonds on poly(vinyl chloride) films by microwave‐discharge oxygen‐plasma treatments

Conjugated polyene bonds on poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) films were rapidly formed by the treatment of oxygen plasma produced by microwave discharge. Changes affecting the formation of conjugated carbon bonds on PVC were studied with respect to plasma emission diagnostic and surface properties of the film with fluorescence, refractant absorption spectroscopy, X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis, and Raman spectroscopy. The formation of polyene bonds on the film surface was responsible for both the dechlorination and dehydrogenation of PVC in the plasma atmosphere. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 96: 589–594, 2005