Computational Modeling of Microstructural-Evolution in AISI 1005 Steel During Gas Metal Arc Butt Welding

A fully coupled (two-way), transient, thermal-mechanical finite-element procedure is developed to model conventional gas metal arc welding (GMAW) butt-joining process. Two-way thermal-mechanical coupling is achieved by making the mechanical material model of the workpiece and the weld temperature-dependent and by allowing the potential work of plastic deformation resulting from large thermal gradients to be dissipated in the form of heat. To account for the heat losses from the weld into the surroundings, heat transfer effects associated with natural convection and radiation to the environment and thermal-heat conduction to the adjacent workpiece material are considered. The procedure is next combined with the basic physical-metallurgy concepts and principles and applied to a prototypical (plain) low-carbon steel (AISI 1005) to predict the distribution of various crystalline phases within the as-welded material microstructure in different fusion zone and heat-affected zone locations, under given GMAW-process parameters. The results obtained are compared with available open-literature experimental data to provide validation/verification for the proposed GMAW modeling effort.     

Multiphysics Modeling and Simulations of Mil A46100 Armor-Grade Martensitic Steel Gas Metal Arc Welding Process

A multiphysics computational model has been developed for the conventional Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) joining process and used to analyze butt-welding of MIL A46100, a prototypical high-hardness armor martensitic steel. The model consists of five distinct modules, each covering a specific aspect of the GMAW process, i.e., (a) dynamics of welding-gun behavior; (b) heat transfer from the electric arc and mass transfer from the electrode to the weld; (c) development of thermal and mechanical fields during the GMAW process; (d) the associated evolution and spatial distribution of the material microstructure throughout the weld region; and (e) the final spatial distribution of the as-welded material properties. To make the newly developed GMAW process model applicable to MIL A46100, the basic physical-metallurgy concepts and principles for this material have to be investigated and properly accounted for/modeled. The newly developed GMAW process model enables establishment of the relationship between the GMAW process parameters (e.g., open circuit voltage, welding current, electrode diameter, electrode-tip/weld distance, filler-metal feed speed, and gun travel speed), workpiece material chemistry, and the spatial distribution of as-welded material microstructure and properties. The predictions of the present GMAW model pertaining to the spatial distribution of the material microstructure and properties within the MIL A46100 weld region are found to be consistent with general expectations and prior observations.     

Ballistic-Failure Mechanisms in Gas Metal Arc Welds of Mil A46100 Armor-Grade Steel: A Computational Investigation

In our recent work, a multi-physics computational model for the conventional gas metal arc welding (GMAW) joining process was introduced. The model is of a modular type and comprises five modules, each designed to handle a specific aspect of the GMAW process, i.e.: (i) electro-dynamics of the welding-gun; (ii) radiation-/convection-controlled heat transfer from the electric-arc to the workpiece and mass transfer from the filler-metal consumable electrode to the weld; (iii) prediction of the temporal evolution and the spatial distribution of thermal and mechanical fields within the weld region during the GMAW joining process; (iv) the resulting temporal evolution and spatial distribution of the material microstructure throughout the weld region; and (v) spatial distribution of the as-welded material mechanical properties. In the present work, the GMAW process model has been upgraded with respect to its predictive capabilities regarding the spatial distribution of the mechanical properties controlling the ballistic-limit (i.e., penetration-resistance) of the weld. The model is upgraded through the introduction of the sixth module in the present work in recognition of the fact that in thick steel GMAW weldments, the overall ballistic performance of the armor may become controlled by the (often inferior) ballistic limits of its weld (fusion and heat-affected) zones. To demonstrate the utility of the upgraded GMAW process model, it is next applied to the case of butt-welding of a prototypical high-hardness armor-grade martensitic steel, MIL A46100. The model predictions concerning the spatial distribution of the material microstructure and ballistic-limit-controlling mechanical properties within the MIL A46100 butt-weld are found to be consistent with prior observations and general expectations.     

电弧热流分布模式对GMAW焊接温度场的影响

提出了ＧＭＡＷ熔池表面产生较大变形时的电弧热流分布模式,以此为基础并考虑熔滴过渡过程及焊缝余高,建立了焊接温度场的数值分析模型,通过数值模拟,定量分析了焊接工艺参数－ＧＭＡＷ熔池表面变形－电弧热流分布－熔池形态及其温度是之间的相互影响。焊接工艺试验结果,与高斯热源模型相比,采用本文给出的ＧＭＡＷ电弧热液分布模型的计算结果更符合实际。     

脉冲熔化极气体保护焊熔池的视觉传感与实时控制

研究对脉冲熔化极气体保护焊（GMAW）熔池过程采用视觉传感与实时控制方法的可行性问题。由于GMAW过程的熔滴过渡现象的复杂性，尝试模拟焊工通过观察熔池变化等因素来调整焊接参数获取满意的焊缝成形的行为。建立了脉冲GMAW过程熔池视觉传感系统，宏观上将熔滴过渡对熔池特征的影响作为黑箱过程处理，根据脉冲GMAW弧光光谱分布和熔池图像特征提取，实现对脉冲GMAW熔池动态过程的实时检测。采用辨识算法建立焊接动态过程的数学模型，进而设计脉冲GMAW熔宽的PID控制器，实现对脉冲GMAW熔池宽度的实时控制。试验表明，建立的视觉传感系统、图像处理算法以及控制器设计检测与控制熔池变化在一定程度上的能够满足脉冲GMAW焊缝宽度的实时性与精度要求。     

基于点热源的GMAW热输入分布模式及应用

分析比较了三种基于点热源的熔化极气体保护焊(GMAW)热输入分布模式,并结合移动点热源作用下焊接温度场的瞬态解分别对其进行了计算,通过焊缝横截面熔合线几何形状计算值与实测值的比较,对三种热输入分布模式进行了评估.利用所建串热源模型模拟了Q195低碳钢和JG590低合金钢GMAW焊缝横截面熔合线的几何形状,进行了Q195钢和JG590钢的GMAW工艺试验,通过焊缝横截面熔合线的几何形状对所建模型进行了试验验证.采用计算和试验相结合的方法,分析评价了目前常用的t3/5计算公式,利用JG590钢焊接温度场的计算结果,结合JG590钢的焊接连续冷却组织转变图,成功地预测了焊接接头熔合区的组织及硬度.     

激光+GMAW复合热源焊接过程热-力耦合数值分析

从宏观的焊接热过程出发,根据激光+GMAW复合热源焊接的特点,提出了适用于复合热源焊接的“双椭球体＋峰值递增圆柱体”组合式体积热源分布模式;建立了激光+GMAW复合热源焊接过程的有限元模型,数值计算了焊接温度场和焊缝横截面的形状尺寸,计算结果与试验结果吻合良好,证明了组合式体积热源模型的合理性和适用性. 采用焊接温度场的计算结果,进一步对复合热源焊接和GMAW的焊接变形和残余应力进行了数值模拟和对比分析. 结果表明,在焊缝熔深基本相同的情况下,复合热源焊接的焊接热输入、焊缝熔宽、焊接变形和高应力区域范围等均比GMAW小. 研究结果印证了激光+GMAW复合热源焊接工艺的优越性,并为焊接工艺参数的优化提供了基础理论数据.     

Hybrid Laser-GMAW Welding of High Strength Quenched-Tempered Steels

High-strength quenched and tempered (HSQT) steels have been widely used in structural applications where light weight is of primary design interest.Gas metal arc welding is a common way to join QT steels.When GMAW is used to join the HSQT steel,multi-pass is usually required to achieve full penetration.In addition,weld crack is often observed because of HSQT steel’s high susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement.In addition,due to the large amount of heat input from the arc,the heat affected zone is often softened.This reduces the ductility and strength of welds and makes the weld weaker than the base metal.In this study,a hybrid laser/GMAW process is proposed to produce butt joint for 6.5mm thick HSQT A514 steel plate.Hydrogen diffusion mechanism is first discusses for GMAW and hybrid laser-GMAW welding processes.Metal transfer mode during the hybrid laser/GMAW welding process is also analyzed.A high speed CCD camera with 4000 frame/second is used to monitor the welding process in real time.Welds obtained by GMAW and hybrid laser/GMAW techniques are compared and tested by static lap shear and dynamic impact.Effects of gap between two metal plates and laser beam/GMAW torch spacing on weld property are studied.By appropriately choosing these two parameters,crack-free butt joints with full penetration can be successfully obtained by the hybrid laser/GMAW welding process for HSQT A514 steel plate.     

Tensile Properties and Fusion Zone Hardening for GMAW and MIEA Welds of a 7075-T651 Aluminum Alloy

Tensile and hardness values for 7075-T651 aluminum alloy in the as welded and post weld heat treated conditions（solubilization and artificial aging-T6）,obtained using GMAW and modified indirect electric arc（MIEA）welding processes are presented.Results showed that the base material along rolling direction exhibited a tensile strength of around 600 MPa and elongation of 11%.For the as welded condition,tensile strength was 260 MPa and elongation percent of 3%.This behavior was attributed to brittleness induced by the microstructural characteristics of the welded alloys,as well as high porosity.Hardness profiles along the welds were obtained and different welded zones were identified.A soft zone（＊100 HV0.1） in the heat affected zone for GMAW and MIEA was observed,the minimum hardness corresponding to weld metal（＊85 and ＊96 HV0.1for GMAW and MIEA,respectively）.The high dilution between filler and base metal during welding in MIEA allows to the Zn and Cu to flow from the base metal into the weld metal,inducing hardening by solution and subsequent artificial aging.In this regard,the hardness of the weld metal for MIEA increases by 56%,while the tensile strength reaches a value close to 400 MPa.For GMAW,non-favorable hardening effect was observed for the weld metal after solution and artificial aging.     

基于多因素权重法的高压GMAW焊缝成形分析

水下高压干式GMAW焊缝成形难以控制,影响焊接质量,通过多因素权重法对影响高压GMAW焊缝成形的参数进行分析,以确定焊接过程中主要参数与焊缝成形之间的关系. 以高压GMAW焊接正交试验结果作为训练样本,利用BP神经网络建立了焊缝成形预测模型. 将模型预测结果与实际焊接试验结果进行对比,验证了模型的精确度. 以预测模型中的权值为基础,通过Garson算法得出各参数变量对于焊缝成形参数的权重系数,并通过高压干式GMAW试验进行验证. 结果表明,不同焊接参数变化引起的焊缝成形参数变化幅度与相应焊接参数对焊缝成形的影响权重基本对应,所得权重系数对于高压GMAW焊接工程应用具有指导作用.     

激光+GMAW复合热源焊流体流动数值分析模型

基于FLUENT软件,建立了适用、高效的激光+GMAW复合焊流体流动数值分析模型. 将电弧热输入视为双椭球热源模型,采用基于小孔尺寸的锥体热源模型描述激光热流分布;将金属填充过程视为液态金属从熔池上部边界以一定速度流入熔池过程,并通过对液态金属流速施加时间脉冲函数,模拟熔滴的过渡频率;模型简化了小孔的计算过程,主要考虑熔池中存在的弯曲小孔对流体的影响. 利用FLUENT软件,对激光+GMAW复合热源焊熔池流体流动及小孔形态进行了模拟计算和分析. 结果表明,模型能够合理反映小孔及复合焊流体流动模式的主要特征,且提高了计算效率.     

基于串热源及CCT图的GMAW焊接热影响区组织及硬度预测

将熔化极气体保护焊（GMAW）的热输入处理为三维移动串热源,建立了串热源模型,模拟了JG590低合金钢的GMAW焊接热过程,进行了JG590钢的GMAW焊接工艺实验,通过焊缝横截面熔合线的几何形状以及焊接接头的几何尺寸对所建模型进行了实验验证,分析评价了目前常用的ts／5计算公式,利用JG590钢GMAW焊接热过程的模拟结果,结合其连续冷却组织转变图（CCT图）,成功预测了焊接热影响区（HAZ）的组织及硬度．     

摆动电弧窄间隙立向上GMAW焊缝成形

文中对摆动电弧窄间隙立向上GMAW工艺进行了研究.结果表明,窄间隙立向上焊缝表面中间凸起,而立向下焊缝中间下凹;摆动角度和摆动速度的增加均有利于焊缝中间凸起高度的降低,侧壁停留时间对焊缝中间凸起的影响较小;电弧在坡口中间摆动时单位移动轨迹长度上的电弧能量能够影响焊缝中间凸起高度,侧壁停留时的单位移动轨迹长度上的电弧能量则主要影响焊缝熔宽,摆动参数通过影响电弧能量的分布来影响焊缝熔宽和中间凸起高度.     

Study on heat source model in twin-arc GMAW with a common weld pool

The heat input from arcs to weld pool in twin-arc gas metal arc welding (GMAW) with a common weld pool is investigated by high-speed photography. The characteristics of arc shapes and droplet transfer are studied and then the models for heat flux distribution on top surface of weld pool and enthalpy distribution of metal droplets transferred into weld pool are established. By using the model, 3-D geometries of weld pools in twin-arc GMAW with a common weld pool are predicted. Corresponding welding experiments on mild steel plates are carried out and the results indicate that the predicted shape of weld bead on cross section shows good agreement with measured one.     

超声模式对GMAW短路过渡行为与焊缝成形的影响

文中研究了连续输出的超声与脉冲输出的超声对GMAW短路过渡行为与焊缝成形的影响.结果表明,焊接过程中引入连续超声与脉冲超声均能改善GMAW短路过渡行为与焊缝成形.两种模式对熔滴过渡行为的影响基本一致;在焊缝成形方面,连续超声对于焊缝熔深的影响更为显著.具体结果为普通GMAW短路过渡周期约为86.5 ms;连续超声辅助GMAW短路过渡周期约为79 ms;脉冲超声辅助GMAW短路过渡周期约为76.5 ms.普通GMAW的熔宽为5.06 mm、熔深为0.361 mm,焊缝余高为1.253 mm. 与普通GMAW相比,连续超声辅助GMAW焊缝熔宽减小了0.4 mm,焊缝熔深增加了100%;脉冲超声辅助GMAW焊缝熔宽减小了0.19 mm,焊缝熔深增加了67.6%.     

Nd:YAG激光+脉冲GMAW复合热源焊接参数对焊缝熔宽的影响

通过试验研究了Nd:YAG激光 脉冲GMAW复合热源焊接过程中焊接工艺参数对焊缝熔宽的影响.结果表明,复合热源焊缝熔宽随电弧功率和激光功率的增大而增大,随焊接速度的提高而减小,而光丝间距和离焦量对复合热源焊缝熔宽影响相对较小.复合热源焊缝熔宽远大于激光焊缝熔宽而仅稍大于脉冲GMAW焊缝熔宽,说明在复合热源焊接过程中脉冲GMAW决定焊缝熔宽,这主要是由于激光束加热区域远小于电弧加热区域造成的.试验结果的分析比较还表明,在激光 电弧复合热源焊接过程中激光功率的增大还极大地提高了焊接速度.     

旋转电弧GMAW堆焊短路过渡熔池动态仿真

为探究旋转电弧GMAW堆焊短路过渡时熔池的温度和对流分布规律,利用Flow-3D软件建立三维数学模型,采用球形旋转热源模型,考虑重力、熔滴拖拽力、表面张力、浮力作用,模拟了堆焊状态下,工件材料为Q235的旋转电弧GMAW短路过渡的熔池成形规律. 采用流体体积法追踪熔滴过渡和熔池表面的自由变形,并分析熔滴进入熔池时熔池内部温度场和流场的变化. 结果表明,熔池形成过程中,旋转熔滴对熔池有搅拌作用,并使熔池内部液态金属活性增强,流速变快,熔池内部液态金属体积变大,熔池的宽度变大. 模拟预测的焊缝尺寸、形状与试验吻合良好. 为优化焊接工艺参数、改善旋转电弧GMAW堆焊焊缝质量提供参考依据.     

Three-dimensional turbulent weld pool convection in gas metal arc welding process

Abstract

A three-dimensional model has been developed to study turbulent fluid flow and heat transfer in a gas metal arc weld pool. The phase change process during melting and solidification is modelled using the enthalpy–porosity technique. Mass and energy transports by droplet transfer are considered through a thermal analysis of the electrode. The droplet heat addition into the molten pool is considered to be in the form of a volumetric heat source distributed in an imaginary cylindrical cavity within the weld pool ('cavity' model). A two-equation k-ε model capable of addressing turbulent weld pool convection, taking into account the morphology of the phase change, is presented. The weld pool dynamics and geometry (shape and size) in a moving gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process are studied and the effects of enhanced diffusivities on the turbulent weld pool are discussed. The predicted weld pool geometry using laminar and turbulent models is also compared with corresponding experimental post-weld sections.     

激光-GMAW复合焊接电弧热源形式对焊接过程参数及焊缝形态的影响

激光-脉冲GMAW复合焊接和激光-连续GMAW复合焊接两种热源形式在复合焊接中使用范围广,应用前景好.系统研究这两种热源形式和脉冲GMAW焊接以及连续GMAW焊接在焊接过程中的电参数变化特征及焊缝的形状尺寸.结果表明,激光-脉冲GMAW复合焊接中电参数平稳,焊接过程稳定,可有效地促进熔滴过渡,并且获得的焊缝尺寸较理想,熔深大、余高小,但激光功率3000W的复合焊接短路时电参数波动性增大.     

熔化极气体保护焊的直接自适应控制

焊接电流和电弧长度是熔化极气体保护焊(GMAW)焊接过程的主要状态变量,决定了熔滴的过渡过程、热量输入和焊缝成形.文中在分析GAMW焊接工艺过程的基础上,建立了焊接电流和电弧长度的数学模型,采用基于二次型性能指标的直接自适应控制算法,通过调节焊接电源输出电压和送丝速度的大小,使焊接电流和电弧长度能跟踪参考模型的输出.同时,针对实际应用中难以检测的电弧长度,建立了电弧长度估计模型,实现了对电弧长度的软测量.结果表明,该算法可以实现弧长和电流的精确控制.