Tensile and fatigue strength of hydrogen-treated Ti-6Al-4V alloy

Tensile, fatigue and fractographic data on Ti-6Al-4V microstructures attained through a series of post--annealing treatments which used hydrogen as a temporary alloying element are presented. Hydrogen-alloying treatments break up the continuous grain boundary and colony structure, and produce a homogeneous microstructure consisting of refined -grains in a matrix of discontinuous . These changes in microstructural morphology result in significant increases of the yield strength (974 to 1119 MPa), ultimate strength (1025 to 1152 MPa) and high cycle fatigue strength (643 to 669 MPa) compared to respective values for lamellar microstructures (902, 994, 497 MPa). The strengths are also significantly greater than the strengths of equiaxed microstructures (914, 1000, 590 MPa). The strengths of hydrogen-alloy treated samples are therefore superior to strengths attainable via other thermal cycling techniques.The fatigue fracture surfaces of the hydrogen-alloy treated samples were topographically similar to equiaxed samples. Fatigue crack initiation was characterized by faceted regions. As crack length and K increased, the crack surface changed to a rounded, ductile topology, with microcracks and locally striated regions. Fracture primarily followed the - interfaces. This is rationalized by the fact that hydrogen-alloyed microstructures are very fine Widmanstatten microstructures having reduced aspect ratios, and these microstructures fail along - interfaces.     

Effect of mean stress on fretting fatigue of Ti-6Al-4V on Ti-6Al-4V

Fretting fatigue tests of Ti‐6Al‐4V on Ti‐6Al‐4V have been conducted to determine the influence of stress amplitude and mean stress on life. The stress ratio was varied from R=−1 to 0.8. Both flat and cylindrical contacts were studied using a bridge‐type fretting fatigue test apparatus operating either in the partial slip or mixed fretting regimes. The fretting fatigue lives were correlated to a Walker equivalent stress relation. The influence of mean stress on fretting fatigue crack initiation, characterized by the value of the Walker exponent, is smaller compared with plain fatigue. The fretting fatigue knockdown factor based on the Walker equivalent stress is 4. Formation of fretting cracks is primarily associated with the tangential force amplitude at the contact interface. A simple fretting fatigue crack initiation metric that is based on the strength of the singular stress field at the edge of contact is evaluated. The metric has the advantage in that it is neither dependent on the coefficient of friction nor the location of the stick/slip boundary, both of which are often difficult to define with certainty a priori.     

Correlation of fatigue properties and microstructure in investment cast Ti-6Al-4V welds

The effect of microstructural characteristics on high-cycle fatigue properties and fatigue crack propagation behavior of welded regions of an investment cast Ti-6Al-4V were investigated. High-cycle fatigue and fatigue crack propagation tests were conducted on the welded regions, which were processed by two different welding methods: tungsten inert gas (TIG) and electron beam (EB) welding. Test data were analyzed in relation to microstructure, tensile properties, and fatigue fracture mode. The base metal was composed of an alpha plate colony structure transformed to a basket-weave structure with thin platelets after welding and annealing. High-cycle fatigue results indicated that fatigue strength of the EB weld was lower than that of the base metal or the TIG weld because of the existence of large micropores formed during welding, although it had the highest yield strength. In the case of the fatigue crack propagation, the EB weld composed of thinner platelets had a faster crack propagation rate than the base metal or the TIG weld. The effective microstructural feature determining the fatigue crack propagation rate was found to be the width of platelets because it was well matched with the reversed cyclic plastic zone size calculated in the threshold ΔK regime.     

Fusion zone microstructure and fatigue crack growth behaviour in Ti-6Al-4V alloy weldments

Abstract

The fatigue crack growth resistance of α–β titanium alloys can be altered by microstructural modification. During welding, the fusion zone microstructure depends on cooling rate. In the present work, the alloy Ti-6Al-4V was welded over a range of heat inputs, using electron beam and gas tungsten arc welding. The weld microstructure varied from predominantly martensitic under rapid cooling conditions to a mixture of martensite and diffusional products on slower cooling. Post-weld heat treatment resulted in a basketweave α–β aggregate that coarsened with temperature and time. In all welded and heat treated conditions, the fusion zone exhibited a fatigue crack growth resistance superior to that of the base material, which was in part attributed to the lamellar microstructure of the fusion zone. Welding residual stresses also played a beneficial role in the as welded condition. Post-weld heat treatment eliminated the advantage resulting from the welding stresses but not that as a result of microstructure.     

Sources of acoustic emission during fatigue of Ti-6Al-4V: effect of microstructure

The fundamentals of acoustic emission (AE) analysis of fatigue cracking were applied to Ti-6Al-4V. The effect of microstructure on the characteristics of the AE events generated and the failure mechanisms which produced AE in Ti-6Al-4V were established. Lamellar microstructures generated one to two orders of magnitude more emission than equiaxed microstructures. The combination of larger grain size, more continuous / interfaces, more tortuous crack-front geometry, cleavage and intergranular fracture in lamellar microstructures accounts for the greater amount of emission. For lamellar microstructures, most AE events were generated in the upper 20% of the stress range, whereas in equiaxed microstructures, most events were generated at lower stresses. Most AE events were generated during crack opening and also at low stresses. AE events having high level intensities were also generated at stresses other than the peak stress. This is because in titanium alloys, which have both high strength and toughness, AE events are generated from both plastic zone extension and crack extension.     

The high-cycle fatigue behavior of Ti-6Al-4V alloy

The cyclic stress-strain behavior and the S/N behavior of a “pseudo-elastic” alloy, Ti-6Al-4V of coarsened microstructure and of a “plastic” material, copper, are compared. In accord with views recently put forth by Freudenthal, important differences are noted between these two types of materials. These differences include the mode of crack initiation, the intensity of the Bauschinger effect, and the level below macroscopic yield at which long-life fatigue data lie.     

Effect of predamage from low cycle fatigue on high cycle fatigue strength of Ti-6Al-4V

Effects of prior low cycle fatigue (LCF) cycling on the subsequent high cycle fatigue (HCF) limit stress corresponding to a life of 10⁷ cycles are investigated for Ti-6Al-4V at room temperature. Tests are conducted at 420 Hz on an electrodynamic shaker-based system at several different LCF maximum loads and under subsequent HCF at R=0.1, 0.5 and 0.8 using a step loading procedure. Under these load combinations, which include the possibility of overload or underload effects if cracks form, there is no statistically significant effect of the prior LCF on the subsequent HCF limit stress. While LCF loading at a high stress of 900 MPa is seen to result in strain ratcheting, no distinct features on the fracture surface and different mechanisms of crack propagation from those obtained at lower maximum loads were observed. LCF loading up to 50% of expected life did not produce any indications of crack formation from either the stress limit data or the fracture surfaces.     

Effects of microstructure on mixed-mode, high-cycle fatigue crack-growth thresholds in Ti-6Al-4V alloy

Effect of microstructure on mixed‐mode (mode I + II), high‐cycle fatigue thresholds in a Ti‐6Al‐4V alloy is reported over a range of crack sizes from tens of micrometers to in excess of several millimeters. Specifically, two microstructural conditions were examined—a fine‐grained equiaxed bimodal structure (grain size ～20 µm) and a coarser lamellar structure (colony size ～500 µm). Studies were conducted over a range of mode‐mixities, from pure mode I (ΔK_II/ΔK_I = 0) to nearly pure mode II (ΔK_II/ΔK_I ～ 7.1), at load ratios (minimum load/maximum load) between 0.1 and 0.8, with thresholds characterized in terms of the strain‐energy release rate (ΔG) incorporating both tensile and shear‐loading components. In the presence of through‐thickness cracks—large (> 4 mm) compared to microstructural dimensions—significant effects of mode‐mixity and load ratio were observed for both microstructures, with the lamellar alloy generally displaying the better resistance. However, these effects were substantially reduced if allowance was made for crack‐tip shielding. Additionally, when thresholds were measured in the presence of cracks comparable to microstructural dimensions, specifically short (～200 µm) through‐thickness cracks and microstructurally small (< 50 µm) surface cracks, where the influence of crack‐tip shielding would be minimal, such effects were similarly markedly reduced. Moreover, small‐crack ΔG_TH thresholds were some 50–90 times smaller than corresponding large crack values. Such effects are discussed in terms of the dominant role of mode I behaviour and the effects of microstructure (in relation to crack size) in promoting crack‐tip shielding that arises from significant changes in the crack path in the two structures.     

Plain fatigue and fretting fatigue behaviour of plasma nitrided Ti-6Al-4V

Fatigue tests with and without fretting against unnitrided fretting pads were conducted on unnitrided and plasma nitrided Ti-6Al-4V samples. Plasma nitrided samples exhibited higher surface hardness, higher surface compressive residual stress, lower surface roughness and reduced friction force compared with the unnitrided specimens. Plasma nitriding enhanced the lives of Ti-6Al-4V specimens under both plain fatigue and fretting fatigue loadings. This was explained in terms of the differences in surface hardness, surface residual stress, surface roughness and friction force between the unnitrided and nitrided samples.     

Fracture mechanics based fretting fatigue life predictions in Ti-6Al-4V

A fracture mechanics based crack propagation analysis is developed to work directly with the output of a contact mechanics stress analysis for fretting fatigue. A series of remote load fatigue tests were conducted on specimens that had previously been subjected to fretting fatigue loading conditions. The growth of these prior fretting induced cracks were monitored and compared to results from the crack propagation analysis. A combined fatigue crack formation and propagation analysis was then applied to other fretting fatigue experiments with good success. The creation of fretting fatigue stress-life curves is also demonstrated.     

On the relationship between microstructure and acoustic emission in Ti-6Al-4V

In situ microstructural observations on slip lines and microfracture processes have been coupled with mechanical deformation to investigate the acoustic emission of Ti-6Al-4V, a two-phase alloy. The material has been subjected to several different heat treatments to produce various microstructures and grain sizes. The dependencies of acoustic emission (AE) characteristics, such as the AE events amplitude, the rate of AE, location of the AE sources and the total events of AE in each deformation test, on work hardening, grain size, second phase content and morphology, and strain rate have been explored. The presence of the second phase, beta, existing in either an intergranular network or thin plates, was found to have little influence on the AE of this material. Furthermore, it was found that the dependencies of the AE characteristics on work hardening, grain size, second phase and strain rate could be explained in terms of the operation of Frank-Read dislocation sources.     

Biaxial deformation of Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-6Al-4V/TiC composites by transformation-mismatch superplasticity

Gas-pressure bulge forming of unreinforced Ti-6Al-4V and TiC-reinforced Ti-6Al-4V was performed while cycling the temperature around the allotropic transformation range of the alloy (880–1020 °C). The resulting domes exhibited very large strains to fracture without cavitation, demonstrating for the first time the use of transformation-mismatch superplasticity under a biaxial state of stress for both an alloy and a composite. Furthermore, much faster deformation rates were observed upon thermal cycling than for control experiments performed under the same gas pressure at a constant temperature of 1000°C, indicating that efficient superplastic forming of complex shapes can be achieved by transformation-mismatch superplasticity, especially for composites which are difficult to shape with other techniques. However, the deformation rate of the cycled composite was lower than for the alloy, most probably because the composite exhibits lower primary and secondary isothermal creep rates. For both cycled materials, the spatial distribution of principal strains is similar to that observed in domes deformed by isothermal microstructural superplasticity and the forming times can be predicted with existing models for materials with uniaxial strain rate sensitivity of unity. Thus, biaxial transformation-mismatch superplasticity can be modeled within the well-known frame of biaxial microstructural superplasticity, which allows accurate predictions of forming time and strain spatial distribution once the uniaxial constitutive equation of the material is known.     

Fatigue Behavior of Ti-6Al-4V

Low-cycle-fatigue texts in vacuum and air were performed. Under cyclic loading the Ti-6Al-4V showed both cyclic hardening and cyclic softening depending on heat treatment, stress amplitude, and microstructure. Plastic deformation of the β-phase in the unaged condition due to stress induced martensitic transformation caused cyclic hardening. Cyclic softening was observed if the α-phase hardened by coherent Ti₃Al particles was plastically deformed. Equiaxed microstructures exhibited a stronger cyclic softening than lamellar structures. This behavior could be explained by the pronounced texture of the equiaxed microstructures, whereas the lamellar structures were texture-free. The fatigue life was influenced by the cyclic softening process mainly in the low-cycle-fatigue regime. The fatigue life at normalized stress amplitude (σ_a/σ_y) was shorter for microstructures with strong cyclic softening as compared to microstructures with lower cyclic softening.     

Local texture and fatigue crack initiation in a Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy

ABSTRACT Fatigue crack initiation was studied in a bimodal TA6V titanium alloy. A ghost structure inherited from the forging process, the scale of which is roughly 100 times the apparent grain size, was found to govern the initiation process. In these macrograins, that we have labelled macrozones, most of the primary alpha grains (α_p) are found to display the same crystallographic orientation. Fatigue cracks are initiated on the basal plane or, if basal slip is difficult, on the prismatic plane. Thus in macrozones, where basal or prismatic slip is easy, numerous neighbouring tiny cracks appear over the whole macrozone, which have the size of the primary α_p grains. In these macrozones the contribution of crack coalescence to crack growth is consequently very significant. On the contrary, if basal and prismatic slips are both difficult in the macrozone, no crack can be found in the corresponding macrozone. The crack initiation process is thus highly heterogeneous at the scale of the macrozone. Furthermore, this microstructure is found to induce a large scatter in the fatigue life of notched samples.     

3D shear-mode fatigue crack growth in maraging steel and Ti-6Al-4V

Fatigue crack growth tests in mixed-mode II + III were performed on maraging steel and Ti-6Al-4V. The 3D evolutions of the crack fronts -measured by SEM after interrupted tests- were analyzed, taking into account the reduction in effective crack driving force by the interlocking and friction of the asperities of the crack surface. Under small-scale yielding conditions, the mixed-mode crack growth rates were found to correlate best with \({\sqrt{{\Delta {\rm K}}_{\rm II}^{{\rm eff}^{2}}+1.2\Delta {\rm K}_{\rm III}^{{\rm eff}^{2}}}}\) in maraging steel, while for Ti-6Al-4V, \({\sqrt{\Delta {\rm K}_{\rm II}^{{\rm eff}^{2}}+0.9\Delta {\rm K}_{\rm III}^{{\rm eff}^{2}}}}\) appeared suitable. For extended plasticity, a crack growth prediction method is proposed and validated for Ti-6Al-4V. This method is based on elastic-plastic F.E. computations and application, ahead of each node of the crack front, of a shear-dominated fatigue criterion.     

Thermomechanical Behavior of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy

Ti-6Al-4V, among the Ti alloys, is the most widely used. In the present work, the behavior of Ti-6Ak-4V alloy has beeninvestigated by the uniaxial hot isothermal compression tests and a series of dilatometric experiments were also carried out todetermine the transformation temperatures at different cooling rates. Specimens for hot compression tests were homogenizedat 1050℃ for 10 min and then quickly cooled to different straining temperatures from 1050 to 850℃. Cooling rates were chosenfast enough to prevent high temperature transformation during cooling. Compression tests were conducted at temperaturesfrom 1050 to 850℃ in steps of 50℃ at constant true strain rates of 10~(-3) or 10~(-2) s~(-1). The apparent activation energy forcompression in two-phase region was calculated 420 kJ·mol~(-1). Partial globularization of cr phase was observed in the specimendeformed at low strain rates and at temperatures near the transformation zone and annealed after deformation.