P92钢的蠕变损伤容许量系数及蠕变断裂机理

利用P92钢在595、610、640、670℃的高应力试验条件下的蠕变试验数据,得出其Norton应力指数,依据Norton应力指数的大小判定其蠕变机理为位错蠕变。同时结合1种新的蠕变变形及断裂模型,引入将蠕变损伤看作1个内在的阶段变量的蠕变损伤容许量系数,根据蠕变损伤容许量λ=2.94,判断其蠕变变形和断裂是位错运动控制的。微观组织的观察也表明,蠕变后的试样中位错密度大大降低,高密度位错是P92钢持久强度高的原因,伴随着位错密度的下降,P92钢持久强度降低直至断裂。     

磷对IN718和GH4133合金变形机理和持久性能的影响

磷提高GH4133和IN718合金的持久寿命.GH4133合金的蠕变机制为位错滑移,IN718合金的蠕变机制为孪晶形成.磷阻碍位错滑移,降低沿晶裂纹萌生和扩展的速度,因而延长GH4133合金的持久寿命.磷阻碍不全位错滑移,降低孪晶形成速度,因而阻碍沿晶裂纹萌生和扩展,延长IN718合金的持久寿命.磷促使IN718合金的蠕变孪晶沿不同方向形成.直接时效GH4133合金的晶界析出较少,缺少强化,易导致早期断裂.因而磷对IN718合金持久寿命的影响比对GH4133合金的影响更加强烈.     

高温与应力耦合作用下Cr-Co-Mo-Ni齿轮轴承钢微观组织演变

 对热处理态的高温Cr-Co-Mo-Ni齿轮轴承试验钢在500℃下进行不同应力的持久试验,采用内插法得到500℃,500h的断裂强度为1022MPa;借助金相显微镜、扫描电镜和透射电镜等仪器观察试验钢持久试验前后的微观组织变化。结果表明：500℃条件下,随着加载持久应力由1150MPa降低至950MPa,试验钢断裂时间由96.4h延长至845.8h,基体中碳化物平均尺寸由0.3μm长大到0.5μm以上,所占面积分数由1.65%上升至3.85%;随着持久应力的降低及断裂时间的延长,马氏体板条束发生剪切变形—碎化—重新排列的变形过程,位错密度呈下降趋势;持久断裂前后,试验钢基体中析出相均为M6C型碳化物。     

CLAM钢的高温蠕变行为

 为了保证CLAM钢在服役条件下的安全性,避免蠕变对设备造成破坏,对CLAM钢的蠕变行为进行了研究。首先,在高温持久蠕变试验机上对CLAM钢进行蠕变试验,绘制了蠕变曲线并讨论了CLAM钢在试验条件下的蠕变变形机制,结果表明,CLAM钢具有很强的温度敏感性,第二相粒子强化机制为主要蠕变机制;其次,采用双对数等温线外推法和Larson-Miller参数法对CLAM钢的蠕变寿命进行了预测,确定了两种蠕变寿命预测模型;最后,比较了两种蠕变寿命预测模型的精度,结果显示,Larson-Miller参数法的外推精度更高,更能反映实际情况。     

超超临界火电机组用T23钢的高温蠕变断裂行为

 通过研究和分析超超临界火电机组用T23钢持久试样的断口形貌及其在600℃高温蠕变过程中的组织演变,探讨了不同应力水平下T23钢的蠕变断裂机制。研究结果表明,T23钢在高应力条件下的蠕变断裂机制类似于常温下典型的韧性断裂,蠕变空洞主要形核于晶内的夹杂物处;而在低应力条件下的蠕变断裂机制表现为脆性沿晶断裂,蠕变空洞则主要形核于晶界第二相处。     

HT9钢的高温蠕变性能研究

以HT9钢为研究对象,进行了700和800℃不同应力水平下的拉伸蠕变试验,利用幂律关系拟合出应力指数n,利用M-G关系和修正M-G关系对蠕变数据进行拟合,并使用SEM、TEM和XRD观察了蠕变断裂后断口的微观组织以及研究其蠕变机理及损伤机制。结果表明,双对数坐标下,HT9钢的最小蠕变速率和蠕变断裂时间均与应力呈线性关系,满足M-G关系和修正M-G关系。应力指数n随着温度的升高而增大。蠕变过程中位错按照Orowan机制绕过第二相。断口具有明显的韧窝结构,部分出现第二相粒子粗化现象。HT9钢800℃蠕变过程中氧化现象比较明显,高温蠕变析出相主要是M23C6型化合物,且呈现出不同的形态,析出相大小差别显著。HT9钢的损伤机制有外截面积损失、材料微观组织劣化、环境损伤等,也可能存在内截面积损失。     

新型马氏体耐热钢G115的蠕变性能研究

G115是钢铁研究总院与宝钢联合开发的应用于600~650℃的超超临界锅炉用管钢。对G115热挤压管在130MPa应力下,分别进行625、650和675℃的蠕变性能试验,通过不同温度下蠕变曲线对比,发现G115钢的持久蠕变性能对温度参数较为敏感,提高持久蠕变温度,导致蠕变试样的稳态蠕变速率大大增加;同时对在650和675℃下的持久蠕变断裂试样的金相组织进行分析,两个温度下断裂的两个持久蠕变试样的断裂机制主要是晶界蠕变孔洞的出现和晶内马氏体板条密度降低导致。     

TA15钛合金的高温蠕变行为

研究TA15钛合金在500~525℃下的高温蠕变行为,实验应力为250~350 MPa。计算合金在不同应力、不同温度下的稳态蠕变速率和应力指数以及蠕变激活能,并通过引入临界应力的概念对稳态蠕变的Arrhenius方程式进行修正,得出不同温度下的临界应力以及合金的真实蠕变应力指数,在此基础上研究其蠕变变形机制。研究结果表明,蠕变应力为350 MPa时,合金的蠕变激活能appQ=403.1 kJ/mol;500℃和600℃下,TA15合金的蠕变临界应力0?值分别为82.15 MPa和34.79 MPa;500℃,TA15合金的真实蠕变应力指数P值为1.7~4.3,600℃时,合金的P值为4.0~6.0;在实验温度和应力范围内,位错的攀移和滑移在TA15合金蠕变变形过程中的作用很大,其中以位错攀移为主,位错滑移为辅。     

一种11%Cr马氏体耐热钢的组织和105h持久强度

研究了一种11Cr-6Co-2W-1Mo马氏体耐热试验钢的组织结构和蠕变性能。结果显示，该耐热钢微观组织为回火马氏体和少量分布在原奥氏体边界的δ-铁素体，析出相主要为M₂₃C₆、MX。基于不同温度与应力下短时蠕变测试结果，利用Larson-Miller参数法和新蠕变模型与Monkman-Grant关系式相结合的方法，预测得到该耐热钢于650℃下服役10⁵ h的持久强度分别为69和18 MPa;后者预测得到的持久强度更低，这是因为基于该模型得到的试验钢的应力指数，在低应力比区间的试验值远低于其高应力比区间的试验值。蠕变测试后试样微观组织和析出相的定量分析结果显示：不同应力比区间，钢中马氏体板条和析出相尺寸在高应力比区间随测试应力降低而粗化的速率明显低于其在低应力比区间的速率，表明这些组织结构演变特征是导致试验钢的应力指数在低应力比区间远低于其在高应力比区间的原因。     

一种镍基单晶合金的组织演化与蠕变行为

通过蠕变曲线测定及组织形貌观察,研究了一种镍基单晶合金的蠕变行为和变形特征.结果表明:单晶合金在试验的温度和应力范围内,对施加应力和温度有明显的敏感性.由所得数据测算出合金的蠕变激活能和应力指数.蠕变初期在施加温度和应力场的作用下,立方γ′相逐渐转变成与施加应力轴方向垂直的N型筏状结构.稳态蠕变期间,合金的变形机制是位错攀移越过筏状γ′相,由于高温蠕变稳态阶段形成的N型γ′相筏状组织厚度较小,位错易于攀移,因而合金具有较大的应变速率.蠕变后期,由于塑性变形,在近断口处筏形γ′相转变成与应力轴方向呈45°角的形貌,合金的变形机制是位错剪切筏状γ′相.     

The effect of particle reinforcement on the creep behavior of single-phase aluminum

The effect of TiC particle reinforcement on the creep behavior of Al (99.8) and Al-1.5Mg is investigated in the temperature range of 150 °C to 250 °C. The dislocation structure developed during creep is characterized in these materials. The addition of TiC increases creep resistance in both alloys. In pure aluminum, the presence of 15 vol pct TiC leads to a factor of 400 to 40,000 increase in creep resistance. The creep strengthening observed in Al/TiC/15_p is substantially greater than the direct strengthening predicted by continuum models. Traditional methods for explaining creep strengthening in particle-reinforced materials(e.g., threshold stress, constant structure, and dislocation density) are unable to account for the increase in creep resistance. The creep hardening rate(h) is found to be 100 times higher in Al/TiC/15_p, than in unreinforced Al. When incorporated into a recovery creep model, this increase inh can explain the reduction in creep rate in Al/TiC/15_p. Particle reinforcement affects creep hardening, and thus creep rate, by altering the equilibrium dislocation substructure that forms during steady-state creep. The nonequilibrium structure generates internal stresses which lower the rate of dislocation glide. The strengthening observed by adding TiC to Al-1.5Mg is much smaller than that found in the pure aluminum materials and is consistent with the amount of strengthening predicted by continuum models. These results show that while both direct (continuum) and indirect strengthening occur in particle-reinforced aluminum alloys, the ratio of indirect to direct strengthening is strongly influenced by the operative matrix strengthening mechanisms. This article is based on a presentation made in the symposium entitled “Creep and Fatigue in Metal Matrix Composites” at the 1994 TMS/ASM Spring meeting, held February 28–March 3, 1994, in San Francisco, California, under the auspices of the Joint TMS-SMD/ASM-MSD Composite Materials Committee.     

Creep resistance of CMSX-3 nickel base superalloy single crystals

Creep deformation in 〈001〉 oriented nickel base superalloy single crystals has been studied in an effort to assess the factors which contribute to the overall creep resistance of superalloys with high volume fractions of γ′ phase. Detailed observations of three dimensional dislocation arrangements produced by creep have been made with the use of stereo electron microscopy. In the temperature range of 800–900°C at stresses of 552 MPa or lower, the dislocation-free γ′ precipitates are resistant to shearing by dislocations. As a result, creep deformation occurs by forced bowing of dislocations through the narrow γ matrix channels on {111} planes. At moderate levels of temperature and stress there are incubation periods in virgin crystals prior to the onset of primary creep. The incubations arise because of the difficult process of filling the initially dislocation starved material with creep dislocations from widely spaced sources. When the newly generated dislocations percolate through the cross section, incubation comes to an end and primary creep begins. In primary creep neither work hardening nor any type of recovery plays an important role. The creep rate decelerates because the favorable initial thermal misfit stresses between γ and γ′ phases are relieved by creep flow. Continued creep leads to a build-up of a three-dimensional nodal network of dislocations. This three-dimensional network fills the γ matrix channels during steady state creep and achieves a quasi-stationary structure in time. In situ annealing experiments show that static recovery is ineffective at causing rearrangements in the three-dimensional network at temperatures of 850°C or lower. The kinematical dislocation replacement processes which maintain the quasi-stationary dislocation network structures during apparent steady state creep are not understood and require further study. Because of the impenetrability of the γ′ precipitates, dislocations move through the γ matrix by forced Orowan bowing, and this accounts for a major component of the creep resistance. In addition, the frictional constraint of the coherent or semi-coherent precipitates leads to the build-up of pressure gradients in the microstructure, and this provides load carrying capacity. There is also a smaller component of solid solution strengthening. Work hardening is comparatively unimportant. Finite element analysis shows that the non-deforming precipitates are increasingly stressed as creep deformation accumulates in the matrix. In the later stages of steady state creep and during tertiary creep the stresses in the precipitates rise to high enough levels to cause shearing of the γ′ particles by dislocations entering from the γ matrix. The recovery resistance of the material is in part due to a very low effective diffusion constant and in another part due to the fact that the three-dimensional dislocation networks formed in the γ matrix serve to neutralize the misfit between the γ and γ′ phases.     

Newtonian viscous creep in metals

All materials exhibit Newtonian viscous creep behavior at low stresses and high temperatures. We review here such creep behaviors in metals comprising of pure metals and alloys. The underlying creep mechanism(s) depends mainly on the grain size and test temperature while other factors such as the initial dislocation density might also be a factor. Coble creep due to diffusion of point defects through grain boundaries is known to be the dominant creep mechanism in metals with very small grain sizes and relatively low temperatures while Nabarro-Herring creep becomes important for intermediate grain sizes and/or high temperatures. Large grain size and bulk single crystalline metals exhibit Harper-Dorn creep due to dislocation motion rather than point defect diffusion-dominated mechanisms albeit the underlying mechanism is still unclear. Microstructural studies of the specimens deformed in the Harper-Dorn regime have provided some insights. Recent studies suggest that microstructural characterization of deformed specimens is necessary for accurate determination of the rate controlling mechanism. The aim of this paper is two fold namely, to first review the viscous creep mechanisms and to present recent results on Ti3Al2.5V alloy emphasizing the importance of post creep microstructural characterization in establishing the rate controlling mechanism(s).     

The mechanisms of indentation creep

A physically-based theoretical model is developed for describing the phenomenon of indentation creep over the whole temperature range, from 300 K to melting. In agreement with experimental data collected, the model predicts that most materials, including ceramics, exhibit indentation creep at temperatures down to 300 K. It is established that the principal mechanism causing indentation creep is dislocation glide plasticity. The dominance of this mechanism over the whole temperature range is due to the very high stresses involved in indentation creep. If, however, the grain size is small (typically less than 0.3–0.4 μm) indentation creep may be dominated by grain boundary (Coble) diffusive creep instead. The implications of these results in terms of the design, forming and application of the so-called “hard materials” is discussed.     

Creep of die cast AZ91 magnesium at room temperature and low stress

Die cast AZ91 magnesium is shown to undergo both primary and secondary creep at room temperature while at stresses at least as low as 60 MPa. Empirical primary and secondary creep equations are also presented that allow creep strain to be calculated as a function of stress and time. The measured stress dependency of the secondary creep rate suggests that diffusion-driven dislocation climb may be the rate-controlling creep mechanism, as has been reported for magnesium and other metals at higher temperatures. Changes in the stress dependency of other constants in the creep equations, and in the time and strain at which secondary creep begins, suggest that the dominant creep mechanism may change at stresses below 120 MPa.     

The deformation mechanisms of superplasticity

Under various conditions of stress and temperature various deformation mechanisms could be rate-controlling for superplastic deformation. In general at low stresses diffusion creep should be rate-controlling. At temperatures between approximately 40 and 65 pct of the absolute melting point grain boundary diffusion should be the dominant diffusion path while at higher temperatures volume diffusion should dominate. At intermediate stresses, grain boundary sliding should be the major deformation mode, but the sliding rate should be governed by the lesser rate of dislocation creep within the grains. At temperatures between 40 and 65 pct of the melting point, the rate of dislocation creep should be controlled by dislocation pipe diffusion, while at higher temperatures volume diffusion should be ratecontrolling. At high stresses the superplastic effect of unusually large tensile extensibility should diminish due to the greater possibility of work-hardening processes such as dislocation cell, tangle, and pile-up formation.     

Harper-Dorn creep in alpha-zirconium

Harper-Dorn (H-D) creep in alpha-zirconium has been investigated at homologous temperatures 0.35 to 0.48 (773 to 1023 K) and stresses ranging from 4.10⁻⁶ to 9.10⁻⁵G (G is the shear modulus) by the helicoid specimen technique. It has been shown that H-D creep takes place at intercept grain sizes larger than about 125μ, while at smaller grain sizes Coble creep operates under the same external conditions. The H-D creep is most probably dislocation core diffusion controlled. A threshold stress for steady state creep has been detected increasing with decreasing temperature. The existence of threshold stress has been qualitatively accounted for by high dislocation density (~10¹²m⁻²) in the specimens tested. The conservative motion of jogs on screw dislocations dependent on dislocation core diffusion has been suggested as the creep rate controlling mechanism. The energy of jog formation has been estimated to which a mean distance between jogs ~ 5b corresponds at 1000 K, where b is the Burgers vector. Also the observed transient creep has been briefly discussed. The transient components of the creep strain cannot be accounted for exclusively by anelastic bowing out of links of dislocation network.     

Creep strength of magnesium-based alloys

The high-temperature creep resistance of magnesium alloys was discussed, with special reference to Mg-Al and Mg-Y alloys. Mg-Al solid-solution alloys are superior to Al-Mg solid-solution alloys in terms of creep resistance. This is attributed to the high internal stress typical of an hcp structure having only two independent basal slip systems. Although magnesium has a smaller shear modulus than aluminum, the inherent creep resistance of Mg alloys is better than that of Al alloys. The creep resistance of Mg alloys is improved substantially by the addition of Y. Solid-solution hardening is the principal mechanism of the strengthening, but the details of the mechanism have not been elucidated yet. Forest dislocation hardening in concentrated alloys and dynamic precipitation in a Mg-2.4 pct Y alloy also contribute to the strengthening. An addition of a very small amount of Zn raises the dislocation density and significantly improves the creep resistance of Mg-Y alloys. This article is based on a presentation made in the symposium entitled “Defect Properties and Mechanical Behavior of HCP Metals and Alloys” at the TMS Annual Meeting, February 11–15, 2001, in New Orleans, Louisiana, under the auspices of the following ASM committees: Materials Science Critical Technology Sector, Structural Materials Division, Electronic, Magnetic & Photonic Materials Division, Chemistry & Physics of Materials Committee, Joint Nuclear Materials Committee, and Titanium Committee.