Varietal and geographic classification of French red wines in terms of pigments and flavonoid compounds

Thirty-four French red wines originating from six different grape varieties and three different production areas were analysed in duplicate for 15 anthocyanins, ten flavonoids and three colour parameters, F-statistics, principal component analysis and stepwise discriminant analysis were used to identify and to explain differences among samples. Clear difference between wines made from different varieties were mainly related to anthocyanin 3-acylglucosides. Malvidin and peonidin 3-acetylglucosides were found in increasing concentrations in wines made respectively from Grenache, Carignan, Cinsault, Merlot, Carbernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc grapes; the concentrations of peonidin and malvidin 3-p-coumarylglucosides were higher in the Cinsault wines studied. Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot wines made near Bordeaux had a less intense colour and a higher malvidin 3-glucoside content than wines from the same varieties produced near Narbonne. Wines made from Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc grapes contained more catechin, epicatechin and myricetin when produced in the south than in the north (Narbonne, Bordeaux, Angers). Of the samples analysed, 96%, and all of the nine extra wines, were correctly classified according to the variety of the grapes using four anthocyanins and catechin selected by step wise discriminant analyses.     

Time course of the colour of young red wines from Vitis vinifera L. during ageing in bottle

The colour characteristics of red wines from Vitis vinifera L. cv Tempranillo, Graciano and Cabernet Sauvignon (vintage 2000) from Navarra (Spain), was studied during 26 months of ageing in bottle through the evaluation of the wine visible spectrum and of several colorimetric indices (colour intensity, %red, %yellow, %blue, %dA and tint) and CIELAB variables (L*, C*, h, a* and b*). During ageing in bottle, the spectrum of Tempranillo wine (pH 4.3) mainly changed in the absorbance range between 420 and 500 nm, whereas Graciano (pH 3.5) and Cabernet Sauvignon (pH 3.6) wines registered a decrease in absorbance in the interval between 500 and 560 nm. The time course of the different wine colour parameters was found to fit either a second‐order polynomium or a linear model, depending on the grape variety employed. CIELAB variables could be described in terms of their colorimetric index counterparts, showing b* and h relative greater errors. Although the wine total chromatic changes in CIELAB units registered after 26 months of ageing in bottle indicated changes perceivable by the human eye (ΔE* ≥ 2.7) for the three varieties studied, Graciano and Cabernet Sauvignon wines showed a more balanced colour evolution than Tempranillo wine.     

Phenolic composition of Tempranillo wines following early defoliation of the vines

BACKGROUND: Early defoliation is a viticultural practice aimed at crop control. So far, the impact of early leaf removal on the monomeric phenolic composition of wines has not been explored. This study examines the effects of early defoliation on the phenolic profile and content in Tempranillo wines. The influence of the defoliation method (manual vs mechanical) and the timing of leaf removal (pre‐bloom vs fruit set) was investigated. RESULTS: Over two consecutive seasons, 2007 and 2008, the monomeric phenolic composition in Tempranillo wines was studied by high‐performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection, and 22 compounds were identified and quantified. Overall, early defoliation led to wines more intensely coloured, of higher alcohol content and with larger concentrations of hydroxycinnamic acids, flavonols and anthocyanins (in 2008 only for mechanical treatments). In the absence of fungal infection, resveratrol was found to increase in wines corresponding to early defoliation treatments. The method of leaf removal seemed to be more critical than the timing of intervention, and larger effects on wine phenolic composition were observed for mechanical treatments. CONCLUSION: Early defoliation proved to be an effective technique for improving the phenolic composition of Tempranillo wines, by favouring the accumulation of hydroxycinnamics, flavonols and anthocyanins. This is an important achievement, as wine quality is often described by its colour and phenolic attributes. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Colour and phenolic compounds in sweet red wines from Merlot and Tempranillo grapes chamber-dried under controlled conditions

Chamber drying under controlled temperature and humidity conditions of the red grape varieties Merlot and Tempranillo grown in Andalusia (Spain), and the fortification and maceration of the musts in the presence of skin from both types of grapes, to obtain sweet red wines, has been studied. Changes in colour and in monomeric and polymeric phenols during the vinification process were examined. Chamber drying increased the sugar content to about 31.4 °Brix within 48 h in Merlot grapes and 72 h in Tempranillo grapes. This drying process also causes skin rupture, facilitating the access of phenolic compounds to the pulp. The resulting musts exhibited slight browning and increased red hues, due to a high concentration of anthocyanins; maceration in the presence of grape skins for 24 h provided the best results. The end-product contained highly acceptable tannin, colour and phenolic compounds for marketing as a high quality sweet red wine, in comparison with other commercial sweet red wines.     

Determination of phenolic compounds in wines: Influence of bottle storage of young red wines on their evolution

Various analytical methods based on the HPLC-DAD technique were used to determine 38 phenolic compounds in red wines. While anthocyanins and hydroxycinnamic acids were determined by direct injection of wine samples, hydroxybenzoic acids, catechins, procyanidins and flavonols required an analytical pretreatment involving liquid–liquid partitioning with ethyl ether followed by solid-phase extraction on C₁₈ mini-columns. The proposed analytical methods were used to establish the phenol composition of Mencía and Brancellao, two varietal young red wines, and its influence on colour stability during storage in bottles for one year. At the end of malolactic fermentation, Mencía wine was found to contain much greater amounts of anthocyan pigments than was Brancellao wine. This resulted in a higher colour density but a weaker hue in Mencía wine than in Brancellao wine. Phenolic compounds evolved similarly in both wines during storage; changes in such compounds involved a decrease in the levels of monomeric anthocyanins, phenolic acids, epicatechin and flavonols, and an increase in those of procyanidins. The absence of a relationship between the changes in colour density and monomeric anthocyanins in both wines suggests that copigmentation and polymerization with other phenolic compounds (viz. phenolic acids, catechins and/or flavonols) prevail over degradation of the pigments.     

Anthocyanin fingerprint of clones of Tempranillo grapes and wines made with them

Background and Aims:  Different clones with distinctive enological characteristics have been identified in many grape cultivars, but data on differences in anthocyanin composition of clones of the same cultivar are scarce. Thus, it has been considered of interest to check changes in the anthocyanin fingerprint of six different clones of Tempranillo grapes grown in the same vineyard, and of wines made with them, over three consecutive years.
Methods and Results:  Data were submitted to different statistical procedures. Despite slight differences in the anthocyanin fingerprint of some clones (relative content of different anthocyanins analysed), variations from year to year were more important than differences in the anthocyanin profile of the clones considered. This fact was also observed when the content (mg/kg grapes) of those molecules was considered. Moreover, Tempranillo wines made with different clones could be classified by discriminant analysis, using the anthocyanin fingerprint or the levels (mg/L wine) of several anthocyanins as predictor variables, and the year grapes were collected as a classification factor.
Conclusions:  The anthocyanin fingerprint of six clones of Tempranillo grapes grown in the same vineyard and that of wines made with them over three consecutive years was affected mostly by weather conditions, despite slight differences in the anthocyanin fingerprint of some clones.
Significance of the Study:  This is the first report on the anthocyanin composition of different clones of Tempranillo grapes and of wines made with them, and indicates that anthocyanin fingerprint of Tempranillo wines depends mainly on agroclimatic factors, and not on genetic differences among clones.     

Statistical interpretation of the color parameters of red wines in function of their phenolic composition during aging in bottle

The relationships between the color parameters (colorimetric indexes and CIELAB variables) and the phenolic components (anthocyanins, pyranoanthocyanins, hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids, flavanols and flavonols) of young red wines from Vitis vinifera L. cv. Tempranillo, Graciano and Cabernet Sauvignon (vintage 2000, Navarra, Spain), have been investigated during 26 months of wine aging in bottle (a period embracing their commercial life), through the application of different statistical analysis (principal component, correlation and polynomial regression). The results of the principal component analysis first indicated that for each variety a high degree of interrelation existed between the color parameters and the anthocyanin pigments. Moreover, it was found that for each variety the color parameters were correlated with the anthocyanins during aging in bottle. Finally, by the application of polynomial regression analysis, both anthocyanins (simple glucosides and acetyl-glucosides) and pyranoanthocyanins (anthocyanin-pyruvic acid adducts) were selected as the variables that best described the different color parameters during aging in bottle. However, differences were found between varieties in relation to the type of anthocyanin pigment selected for describing each color parameter, finally indicating the importance of the grape variety factor in the definition of the wine chromatic characteristics.     

Classification of red and white wines by denomination of origin according to phenolic composition and colour characteristics and correlation with standard parameters

The two main phenolic compounds, namely anthocyanins and tannins, and some chromatic characteristics have been determined in 437 samples of red and white wines from northwest of Spain, which were commercialised in two consecutive years (2005 and 2006). The variation range for total polyphenol index (TPI) was 4.1–16.6 and 27.8–91.9 in white and red wines, respectively. Standard parameters were also investigated. The classification successful by Denominations of Origin was near 50% for both red and white wines. Statistical correlations among standard and colour parameters were established to find a simple methodology usually used in winery that permits to provide more complete information for the oenologist. So, a significant correlation was found for TPI or chromatic intensity and volume mass in red wines (0.547–0.583, P < 0.01), while tonality can be estimated from pH (0.601, P < 0.01). No lineal relationship was found in white wines.     

Contribution and importance of wine spirit to the port wine final quality—initial approach

The commercial wine spirit used for this study revealed that the aldehyde content mainly comprises acetaldehyde but other aldehydes such as propionaldehyde, 2‐methylbutyraldehyde, isovaleraldehyde, methylglyoxal, benzaldehyde and others are also present in significant amounts. A typical grape must was used to assess the influence of wine spirit in the analytical and sensorial characteristics of fortified wines. Decreasing levels of anthocyanins, as well the increase in the red colour and tanning capacity, were observed, and seem to be positively correlated with the increase of the aldehyde content present in the wine spirits used to fortify the must. Using the CIE L*a*b* system, this aldehyde content present in the spirit used seemed to be correlated with the decrease of the wines' lightness (darkening effect), the displacement of the hue angle to higher values (yellowing effect) and the increase of the chromaticity (colour saturation) of the wines. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Copigmentation,colour and antioxidant activity of single-cultivar red wines

A hundred and thirty-six single-cultivar red wines of different vintages were collected from several wineries in the Canary Islands in order to study the magnitude of the copigmentation phenomenon and the antioxidant activity. The contribution of free anthocyanins, copigmented anthocyanins and polymeric pigments to the colour of wine, as well as the total phenols, the antioxidant activity (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, DPPH method) and the chromatic characteristics of the wines were determined. The influence of ageing time and the climatic conditions on these parameters was also studied. The wines made with Merlot, Ruby Cabernet and Syrah cultivars showed the highest parameters of colour, and the largest contribution to the copigmented anthocyanins was from the Ruby Cabernet, Listán negro and Syrah cultivars. The copigmented anthocyanins and the free anthocyanins decrease with the age of the wine, and the antioxidant activity of the samples appears to be related to the total phenol content. An influence of the climatic conditions on colour parameters has been found. The correlation study between parameters suggests that the parameters b* and L* could be used as suitable indicators of evolution or oxidation stage of red wines.     

Detection and Partial Characterisation of New Anthocyanin-Derived Pigments in Wine

New anthocyanin-derived red–orange pigments were detected in wine in the course of cross-flow microfiltration experiments. Analysis of the sugar and organic acid released respectively by acid and alkaline hydrolysis showed that the two major products were respectively a glucoside and the corresponding p-coumaroylglucoside. Mass spectrometry indicated molecular masses of 755·5 for the p-coumaroylglucoside and of 447·5 for its aglycone. Therefore, the new pigments are likely to result from condensation reaction between grape anthocyanins (possibly the 3-glucoside and 3-p-coumaroylglucoside of malvidin) and another wine component, which is not a flavanol. This reaction may partici-pate in the mechanism of colour change during ageing of red wines.     

The magnitude of copigmentation in the colour of aged red wines made in the Canary Islands

In order to study the magnitude of the copigmentation phenomenon in aged red wines, 84 samples of Listán negro wines were collected from several wineries in the Canary Islands. They were analysed at 1 and 2 years of age. The contribution of free anthocyanins, copigmented anthocyanins and polymeric pigments to the colour of wine, and the total phenols were determined. Moreover, coloured anthocyanins, total anthocyanins, percentage of total anthocyanins in coloured form and chemical age factor, and the chromatic characteristics of the wines were determined. The contribution to colour due to copigmented anthocyanins in these aged red wines remained at 22.3 and 18.5% (mean values) after 1 and 2 years of age, respectively, and the free anthocyanins at 37.0 and 32.5%. A comparison between the results obtained by Somers and Boulton methods has been established.     

Evolution of the phenolic content of red wines from Vitis vinifera L. during ageing in bottle

The evolution of the phenolic content, as measured by spectrophotometric methodologies [total polyphenols (TP), low-polymerized polyphenols (LPP), total anthocyanins (TA), catechins (CAT), proanthocyanidins (PRO) and o-diphenols (OD)], was studied in young red wines from Vitis vinifera L. cv Tempranillo, Graciano and Cabernet Sauvignon during 26 months of ageing in bottle. Although the wines showed differences in their initial phenolic profiles, the evolution trend of the different families of phenolic compounds was similar in the wines from the three grape varieties. TA markedly decreased during ageing in bottle (43% for Tempranillo, 65% for Graciano and 66% for Cabernet Sauvignon), following a first-order kinetic. Calculation of the kinetic parameters revealed that the disappearance rate of TA was 2-fold lower for Tempranillo wine than for Graciano and Cabernet Sauvignon wines, which exhibited similar kinetics. This decrease in TA (due to the disappearance of monomeric anthocyanins), together with a increase registered in CAT and PRO (due to the cleavage of proanthocyanidins and their structural tranformations), was consistent with a decrease in LPP, suggesting the occurrence of condensation reactions during ageing in bottle. The evolution trends observed for TP and OD during ageing in bottle were the results of changes in the different groups of phenolic compounds involved in both determinations. Global phenolic determinations, usually performed in wineries, provided useful information in relation to the evolution of wine polyphenols during ageing in bottle.     

Effects of pH,sulphur dioxide,alcohol content,temperature and storage time on colour composition of a young Portuguese red table wine

In a young Portuguese red table wine (Douro Valley) a significant relationship between the colour composition (anthocyanins, polymeric pigment, colour density) and five parameters (pH, SO₂, alcohol, temperature, time of storage) were found. Higher temperature increased the loss of individual and total anthocyanins (as measured fay HPLC) during the ageing, while the wines with higher SO₂ content contained a greater amount of anthocyanins. Malvidin 3-glucoside acetate was the only anthocyanin not affected by the SO₂ content, but its concentration was related with the interaction term (time of storage × SO₂ content). Peonidin and malvidin 3-glucoside-p-coumarate were the two anthocyanins affected by the quadratic term of temperature. Three different groups of equations corresponding to the three different states of the glucoside moiety were found. The polymeric pigment absorbance increases daring conservation and with higher temperature, while the pH and SO₂ content decreased the polymeric pigment formation. The colour density of the experimental wine was related significantly to the changes of the coloured anthocyanins and to the polymeric pigment content.     

Colorimetric study of the interactions between different families of red wine pigments using transmittance and reflectance measurements

The aim of this work was to conduct a detailed colorimetric study, using transmittance and reflectance measurements, to evaluate the possible interactions occurring among the different families of pigments comprising to colour matter of red wines and their contribution to the colour in aged red wines.To accomplish this, the phenolic material of monovarietal red wines obtained from Tempranillo and Graciano varieties, and their blends, were fractionated by gel permeation chromatography in order to separate the coloured fractions with different chemical compositions. The binary blends at different concentrations of the fractions having higher anthocyanin monoglucoside proportions with fractions having higher pyranoanthocyanin derivative contents and direct flavanol-anthocyanin condensation products were carried out in order to determine the effect of adding these derivatives on the colour of the anthocyanin monoglucosides, the major wine pigments. It was observed that the addition of derived pigments to the anthocyanin monoglucosides fraction resulted in colour differences perceptible by the human eye. These variations were mainly quantitative (changes in chroma and lightness), and were also qualitative (changes in hue) in monovarietal wines.Studying the phenolic fractions of wines implies an approach to the chemical reality of the wines, more than the studies on model solutions, since they can lead to the knowledge of those components having more influence on the final colour of the wine. With these results the wineries could conduct the vinifications towards a higher extraction of the components or families of components more important for the intensity and stability of colour.     

酿酒葡萄新品系‘黑珍珠’果实品质分析

为了研究‘黑珍珠’葡萄果实的酿酒特性,探究其亲本信息,分别利用高效液相色谱-质谱（high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry,HPLC-MS）和气相色谱-质谱（gas chromatography-mass spectrometer,GC-MS）技术分析了‘黑珍珠’葡萄果实的花色苷和香气化合物的组成及含量。HPLC-MS分析结果表明,‘黑珍珠’葡萄果皮中花色苷总量为2 774.76 mg/kg mf,以花色素双葡萄糖苷为主（71.2%）,推测其含有非欧亚种葡萄的血缘。GC-MS分析结果表明,‘黑珍珠’葡萄果实香气化合物以游离态与糖苷结合态形式存在,共检测到123 种化合物。简单序列重复分析结果表明,在供试品种（‘贝达’、‘烟73’和‘Kolor’）中未发现‘黑珍珠’的亲本。由于‘黑珍珠’果皮花色苷的种类与含量丰富,且其单品种葡萄酒颜色深,未来可以作为酿造具有地区特色红葡萄酒的新品种或调色新品种。     

Characteristics and antioxidant capacities of five hawthorn wines fermented by different wine yeasts

Different yeast strains can influence the characteristics and active constituents of hawthorn wines. Hawthorn wines were produced using five different yeasts and characterized in terms of their profiles of typical properties and antioxidant capacities. The wine antioxidant capacities of 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2′‐azino‐bis‐3‐ethylbenzothiazoline‐6‐sulfonic acid, superoxide anion (O₂ · ^–) scavenging activities and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) were determined. It was found that the general wine compositions showed the expected variations. Except for yeast Lalvin W15 all of the yeasts exhibited good sugar‐utilizing ability and alcohol production. Yeast Lalvin 71B exhibited an excellent fermentation capability. Hawthorn wine fermented by yeast Lalvin 71B had the lowest residual sugar, titratable acidity and colour density and the highest alcohol content. SIHA Active Yeast 3 had good performance in respect to oxidation resistance. The highest content of anthocyanins and polyphenols in the wine was found with hawthorn wine fermented by SIHA Active Yeast 3, and this wine contained the highest antioxidant activity as determined by the DPPH assay, O₂ · ^– assay and FRAP. Statistical analysis indicated that pH value was significantly correlated with colour density (?0.954**) and alcohol content (0.905**) in the hawthorn wines. There was a strong positive correlation between the polyphenol content and the antioxidant activity as determined by the DPPH (0.915**) and FRAP (0.914**) assays, respectively. Copyright © 2013 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling.     

Free radical scavenging and antibacterial activities of southern Serbian red wines

Free radical scavenging and antibacterial activities were determined for several red wines from different grape varieties from the southern Serbia wine region. The amount of polyphenols and anthocyanins in selected wines was investigated and the potential antibacterial activity of the wines against pathogenic strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was also determined. The free radical scavenging and antibacterial activity of the wines was correlated with polyphenolic and anthocyanin content. The significant differences in the antioxidant and antibacterial activities between the wines from grape cultivars (Cabernet Sauvingon and Pinot Noir) and the indigenous varieties (Vranac and Prokupac) were not confirmed. The hypothesis of a protective effect of red wine is supported by our results that show that the red wines with higher amounts of polyphenols and anthocyanins had higher antioxidant and antibacterial properties.