Studies on Desi and Kabull Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Cultivars: Levels of Protease Inhibitors, Levels of Polyphenolic Compounds and in vitro Protein Digestibility

The levels of trypsin inhibitor activity were higher in both kabuli and desi seeds of chickpea than their chymotrypsin inhibitor activity. Mean values for the trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor units in dhal and seed samples of desi were higher as compared with kabuli cultivars. The presence of seed coat reduced the protein extraction. Mean values of polyphenolic compounds in seed samples of desi were more than twice that of kabuli and these differences disappeared in dhal samples indicating the distribution of these compounds mainly in the seed coat. The in vitro protein digestibility studies showed larger differences between desi seed and dhal samples when compared with kabuli seed and dhal samples. Polyphenolic compounds exhibited a highly significant and negative corretation (r = 0.872**) with in vitro digestibility of protein and a significant positive correlation with trypsin (r = 0.612*) and chymotrypsin (r = 0.507*) inhibitor activities.     

Cooking quality and nutritional attributes of some nely developed cultivars of chickpea (Cicer arietinum)

Eight nely developed and to commonly gron chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) cultivars ere evaluated for their cooking quality by measuring cooking time, ater absorption and sensory properties. Nutritional aspects of cooked hole seed samples ere measured chemically (including amino acids and minerals) and biologically in nitrogen-balance experiments ith rats. Results indicated that kabuli (cream seed coat) may be generally preferred to desi (bron seed coat) cultivars in terms of cooking time and sensory properties. Calcium content as noticeably higher in desi than in kabuli cultivars, hereas magnesium, iron, copper and zinc shoed no definite trend. Levels of lysine, threonine, methionine and cystine of these genotypes ere ithin the range of FAO values. Desi and kabuli revealed no noticeable difference in protein and amino acids. Hoever, biological value as considerably higher for kabuli than for desi. Consequently, kabuli contained more utilisable protein and may be nutritionally better than desi. In general, cooking quality and nutritional aspects of both nely developed and control cultivars ere similar.     

Studies on Desi and Kabuli Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Cultivars. The Levels of Amylase Inhibitors, Levels of Oligosaccharides and In Vitro Starch Digestibility

Amylase inhibitor activity (AIA) of chickpea extracts was investigated using pancreatic and salivary amylases. The extracts showed higher inhibitor activity towards pancreatic amylase than salivary amylase. Mean values indicated slightly higher inhibitory activity in desi than kabuli cultivars, though clear-cut differences were not observed among the cultivars. While in vitro starch digestibility of meal samples indicated no large differences among desi and kabuli types of chickpea, the mean values of digestibility of isolated starches of kabuli types was higher than those of desi types. The mean values of stachyose were higher in desi cultivars. When desi and kabuli types were considered together, stachyose and raffinose contents were not found significantly related to the concentrations of total soluble sugars while stachyose showed a significant correlation with raffinose.     

A Method to Estimate the Hydration and Swelling Properties of Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)

ABSTRACT:  Existing methodologies for estimating hydration properties in pulses (a potential indicator of cooking time) can be misleading and few measure both maximum hydration and the rate of hydration. Therefore, a new method, based on the Mitscherlich equation, was proposed and compared to existing methodologies. It was shown to be a superior estimator of both maximum hydration and hydration rate in desi and kabuli chickpeas. The new method was also superior for estimating maximum swelling and the rate of swelling in desi and kabuli chickpeas. Hydration and swelling data for 6 desi and 4 kabuli chickpea genotypes were compared using the new method and showed large genotypic differences. Use of the new method is recommended for estimating the hydration parameters of desi and kabuli chickpea for industry purposes and for selection of genotypes in breeding programs.     

Chickpea leaves as a vegetable green for humans: evaluation of mineral composition

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) is generally consumed as a seed food, being a good source of protein and other essential human nutrients. However, young chickpea leaves are also eaten as a cooked vegetable green in certain parts of the world and could be a useful source of dietary nutrients, especially in malnourished populations. Because little information is available on the mineral content of this food, we characterised leaf mineral concentrations in 19 diverse accessions of chickpea. Both desi and kabuli chickpea types were studied. All plants were greenhouse‐grown and were fertilised daily with a complete mineral solution. Young, fully expanded leaves (fourth through seventh nodes from the apex) were harvested at both early and late vegetative stages. The leaves were dried, ashed and analysed for mineral concentrations. Macronutrient mineral (Ca, Mg, K, P) concentrations varied from 1.3‐fold to 1.8‐fold and micronutrient mineral (Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, B, Ni) concentrations varied from 1.5‐fold to 2.4‐fold across all accessions. No major differences were observed in leaf mineral concentrations between the kabuli and desi types; mineral concentrations were generally lower in leaves collected at the later harvest date. Microscopic analyses demonstrated that all accessions contained crystal inclusions, suggestive of calcium oxalate crystals. Overall, chickpea leaves were found to be a good source of several minerals required by humans, and the levels of most of these minerals significantly exceeded those previously reported for spinach and cabbage. Published in 2003 by Society of Chemical Industry[This is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the U.S.A.]     

Chemical analysis and physico-chemical properties of chickpea and lentil cultivars

Some high yielding cultivars of chickpea (Kabuli and desi) (Cicer arietinum) and lentil (Lens esculenta) were used for chemical analysis and physico-chemical properties namely protein, fat, sugars, starch, in vitro digestibility of starch and protein; seed weight, seed volume, seed density, hydration capacity, swelling capacity, water absorption capacity and cooking time. Among chickpea, Gora Hisari (Kabuli) and Haryana Chana (desi) cultivars, and among lentil LH 82-6 cultivar manifested higher contents of protein, fat, sugars, starch and in vitro digestibility of starch and protein. Values of seed volume, seed density, hydration capacity, swelling capacity and water absorption capacity were also found higher for these cultivars which might have contributed towards less cooking time.     

Characterisations of kabuli and desi chickpea starches cultivated in China

The characterisation of starches from kabuli and desi type chickpea seeds was investigated by monitoring amylose content, swelling power, solubility, synaeresis, water-binding capacity and turbidity properties. Total amylose and apparent amylsoe content were 31.80% and 29.93% for kabuli and 35.24% and 31.11% for desi, respectively. The shape of starch granules varied from round to oval or elliptic. The transition temperatures (T_o, T_p and T_c) were (62.237, 67.000 and 72.007 °C) and (59.396, 68.833 and 77.833 °C) for kabuli and desi starches, respectively. The ΔH value of kabuli type was higher than that of desi type. The crystal type of chickpea starches was a typical C_A-type pattern. Breakdown and setback viscosity of kabuli starch were lower than those of desi starch, indicating high heat and shear stability. Kabuli starch showed a higher value of M_w (5.382 × 10⁷ g/mol) than desi starch (3.536 × 10⁷ g/mol). Both kabuli and desi starches belonged to low glycaemic starches from measuring starch fractions and hydrolysis index.     

Genotype and growing environment influence chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) seed composition

BACKGROUND: As a first step towards genetic improvement of seed quality in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), seven desi and nine kabuli varieties were grown at multiple sites to assess the affect of environment on seed yield, weight and selected seed constituents. The sites were chosen to represent a range of environments in chickpea production areas of the Canadian prairies. RESULTS: Genotype × environment interaction effects on starch, amylose and protein (desi only) concentrations and seed yield were significant, suggesting that the varieties did not perform consistently relative to each other in the different environments. Starch concentration was negatively correlated (r_kabuli = ?0.25, P < 0.05; r_desi = ?0.16, P < 0.05) with protein concentration in both chickpea market classes. However, repeatability estimates of starch, amylose and protein concentrations were low and inconsistent across chickpea market classes, possibly owing to complex biosynthetic pathways for these constituents. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that testing for seed constituent traits over a range of environments will be required to improve seed quality in individual chickpea varieties. The best selection strategies for seed constituent improvement in chickpea will be influenced by genotype and genotype × environment interaction for these traits. The negative relationship between seed constituents and yield indicates that selection for chickpea cultivars with desired seed composition may require compromise and indirect selection. Copyright © 2009 Crown in the right of Canada. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Oil Absorption and Sensory Properties of a Snack Food from Chickpea Genotypes

Among the commonly consumed grain legumes the score on general acceptability of a snack food (seviya) was the highest for that from chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) followed by lentil, pigeonpea and green gram, whereas the oil absorption by the product was highest for lentil followed by black gram, chickpea, and green gram. Different methods of dehulling did not cause any notable effects on oil absorption of chickpea seviya. The flour particle size, starch, and protein contents significantly influenced oil absorption of seviya. The oil absorption of the product differed significantly among genotypes, but clear cut differences were not found between desi and kabuli groups of chickpea genotypes.     

Characterization of protein isolates from different Indian chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivars

Protein isolates prepared by alkaline solubilization followed by isoelectric precipitation and freeze drying from desi (PBG-1, PDG-4, PDG-3, GL-769, and GPF-2) and kabuli (L-550) chickpea cultivars were evaluated for functional (water and oil absorption capacities, least gelation concentration, foaming capacity and stability) and thermal properties. Significant difference (P ? 0.05) in properties of kabuli and desi chickpea protein isolates was observed. Kabuli chickpea protein isolate showed significantly (P ? 0.05) higher ash (1.14%), protein (94.4%), L^∗, ΔE value, oil absorption capacity (OAC) and lower water absorption capacity (WAC) than their corresponding desi chickpea protein isolates. The solubility-pH profile of different protein isolates showed minimum solubility in the pH between 4.0 and 5.0 and two regions of maximum solubility at pH 2.5 and 7.0. Foaming capacity of all protein isolates increased with the increase in concentration. Kabuli chickpea protein isolate showed the highest foam stability (94.7%) after 120 min of storage. The thermal properties of protein isolates from different chickpea cultivars were studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Protein isolates from both the chickpea types differed significantly (P ? 0.05) in peak denaturation temperature (T_d) and heat of transition (ΔH). Kabuli type protein isolate exhibited lower T_d and ΔH value as compared to those from desi types. The interrelationships between characteristics of protein isolates showed a significant (P ? 0.05) negative correlation of T_d with protein content and OAC. It was also observed that cultivars with high fat content had high ΔH and lower WAC.     

Relationship between cooking time and some physical characteristics in chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)

The time required to cook chickpeas (Cicer arietinum) varies from 55 to over 200 min. Seed weight and volume, swelling index and hydration capacity were found to correlate with cooking time. Correlation coefficients of between 0.65 and 0.75 were found for kabuli-type (large seed) chickpeas, and coefficients of between 0.78 and 0.87 when desi types (small seed) were included. These relationships enable large numbers of chickpea genotypes to be screened rapidly into long, medium and short cooking time types.     

In vitro starch digestibility,expected glycemic index,and thermal and pasting properties of flours from pea,lentil and chickpea cultivars

In vitro starch digestibility, expected glycemic index (eGI), and thermal and pasting properties of flours from pea, lentil and chickpea grown in Canada under identical environmental conditions were investigated. The protein content and gelatinization transition temperatures of lentil flour were higher than those of pea and chickpea flours. Chickpea flour showed a lower amylose content (10.8–13.5%) but higher free lipid content (6.5–7.1%) and amylose–lipid complex melting enthalpy (0.7–0.8 J/g). Significant differences among cultivars within the same species were observed with respect to swelling power, gelatinization properties, pasting properties and in vitro starch digestibility, especially chickpea flour from desi (Myles) and kabuli type (FLIP 97-101C and 97-Indian2-11). Lentil flour was hydrolyzed more slowly and to a lesser extent than pea and chickpea flours. The amount of slowly digestible starch (SDS) in chickpea flour was the highest among the pulse flours, but the resistant starch (RS) content was the lowest. The eGI of lentil flour was the lowest among the pulse flours.     

Screening of chickpea accessions for resistance against the pulse beetle,Callosobruchus chinensis L. (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)

During storage, chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is severely attacked by some bruchid species, especially Callosobruchus chinensis L. (Coleoptera: Bruchidae), resulting in losses in quantity and nutritional quality. In the present study, three species of Cicer including five accessions of Cicer arietinum L. (three kabuli and two desi chickpeas), four accessions of C. echinospermum P.H. Davis and five accessions of C. reticulatum Ladiz. were screened for resistance to C. chinensis in both free-choice and no-choice tests in the laboratory. Resistance was evaluated by measuring oviposition (number of eggs per seed), adult emergence (number of holes per seed), damaged seed rate and seed weight loss (%). The results revealed that no eggs were laid by the bruchid females to the C. echinospermum accessions in free-choice test, but in no-choice test only two C. echinospermum accessions (AWC 304 and AWC 305) had few eggs (4.3 and 3.3 eggs/seed, respectively). The highest rate of oviposition occurred in kabuli chickpeas, especially in YAR (25.1 eggs/seed in free-choice test). The accessions exhibited a similar pattern for adult emergence like in the oviposition rates. As for damaged seed rate, no damage was observed in both tests in the C. echinospermum accessions, except AWC 304 (6.7%) in no-choice test. The highest seed damage was seen in kabuli-type accessions, being 100% in YAR and ILC 8617. Considering seed weight loss, no weight loss occurred in the C. echinospermum accessions in both tests (except, AWC 304 in no-choice test) whereas the highest weight loss was seen in the kabuli-type accession, CA 2969 (28.6%) in free-choice test and in the desi type accession, ICC 4957 (35.0%) in no-choice test. Since lower numbers of eggs were laid on hairy, wrinkled/reticulated and dark seed accessions, these features seemed to be important in the preference of the bruchid for host selection and oviposition. These results suggest that resistant varieties can be used as gene sources in breeding new cultivars resistant to C. chinensis.     

Inhibitor activities of chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L) against bovine,pocine and human trypsin and chymotrypsin

Twenty-two chickpea samples (7 genotypes, 4 desi and 3 kabuli) representing three different sites of cultivation and three years of harvest were examined for their inhibitory activities against bovine, porcine and human trypsin/chymotrypsin, and compared for their isoinhibitor patterns. No significant difference in inhibitor activity between the desi and kabuli seed types was found for any of the enzymes used, when data from different locations and years were averaged. However, some significant differences were observed between individual cultivars when compared at the same location and in the same year. Inhibitor activities against the three trypsins and three chymotrypsins were statistically different with activities against bovine (5.46 ± 1.21) > porcine (5.24 ± 1.18) > human (4.45 ± 0.93) trypsin and those against bovine (4.89 ± 1.27) < porcine (8.91 ± 2.14) < human (10.54 ± 2.50) chymotrypsin (means ± standard deviation, expressed as mg active enzyme completely inhibited per g seed meal). Levels of activity of both trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor were influenced by the location and year of cultivation. Isoelectric focusing yielded identical inhibitor patterns for all samples, indicating seven isoinhibitors acting against trypsin and chymotrypsin. Results are discussed in relation to nutritional significance of these inhibitors and perspectives for breeding genotypes low in protcase inhibitors.     

Relationship Between Cookability and Some Chemical and Physical Properties of Faba Beans (Vicia faba L.)

Cookability index (determined by penetrometer) and some physical properties were determined for 20 samples of faba beans (Vicia faba L.) grown in Canada and Egypt. Proximate composition was determined for eight samples. Starch of four bean samples, representing extremes in cookability, was examined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and amylography. Statistical analyses showed highly significant correlations between cookability index and hydration coefficient and percentage seed coat for the Egyptian samples (high seed coat content). For the Canadian samples (low seed coat content), highly significant correlations were obtained between cookability index and thousand seed weight, peak amylograph viscosity and falling number values of cotyledon flour. Differences between soft and hard cooking samples were observed by DSC and amylography of the starch. The study showed that the hard to cook phenomenon in faba beans is controlled by characteristics of both seed coat and cotyledons and is not a “hard shell” problem only.     

Relationships Between Selected Properties of Seeds,Flours, and Starches from Different Chickpea Cultivars

ABSTRACT

Five desi (PBG-1, PDG-4, PDG-3, GL-769, and GPF-2) and one kabuli type (L-550) chickpea cultivars were evaluated for their seed mass, volume, hydration capacity, swelling capacity, cooking time, and instrumental textural properties (hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness). Flour was prepared from these chickpea cultivars and various physicochemical and functional properties were determined. The pasting (pasting temperature, peak viscosity, breakdown, and final viscosity) and gelatinization (T _o, T _p, T _c, and ΔH _gel) properties of these flours were measured using Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) and Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC), respectively. Starch was also isolated from chickpea cultivars and evaluated for amylose content, swelling power, solubility, and syneresis values. Physicochemical, cooking, and instrumental textural properties of seeds of different chickpea cultivars were related to physicochemical, gelatinization, and pasting properties of their flours and physicochemical properties of their starches. Selected properties of chickpea seeds were significantly correlated with the properties of their starches and flours. Hardness value of soaked chickpea seeds was positively correlated to cooking time, seed mass, seed volume, hydration, and swelling capacity (p < 0.01). Water solubility index (WSI) of chickpea flours was positively correlated to seed mass, volume, hydration capacity, and hardness value (p < 0.05). Selected instrumental textural parameters of seeds had positive correlation with ΔH _gel of flours (p < 0.01). Peak viscosity of flours showed positive correlation to breakdown, final viscosity, bulk density, and negative correlation to cohesiveness of soaked seeds (p < 0.01). Final viscosity showed negative correlation to bulk density and water absorption index (WAI) (p < 0.01) of flours.     

Comparative analysis of techno-functional properties,starch digestion and protein quality of pigmented chickpea flours

The aims of this investigation were to evaluate physicochemical, functional, pasting, and thermal properties, as well as the starch and protein digestibilities of whole flours obtained from ten chickpea cultivars differing in seed coat colour (black, brown, green, red and cream). The coloured chickpeas flours contained higher amounts of bioactive compounds as total phenolics (TPC, 241.25–444.41 μg gallic acid equivalents per g), β-glucans (1.02–2.42 g/100 g), resistant starch (22.68–37.52% of total starch) and higher protein digestibility corrected amino acid scores (PDCAAS, 0.61–0.82) compared with the cream-coloured chickpea Blanco Sinaloa (C.BS). The principal component analysis showed several differences among the chemical compositions, starch digestions and seed protein qualities; in the same sense we found a correlation between TPC and starch content with their thermal properties and starch digestion. Subsequently, pigmented chickpea cultivars have potential as functional ingredients for food product development.     

Chemical composition,functional properties and microstructural characteristics of three kabuli chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) as affected by different cooking methods

Chickpea is an important food legume and is a major ingredient in many human diets. Chemical composition, physical parameters, functional properties and microstructural characteristics of three kabuli chickpea cultivars and the effects of three cooking methods were investigated. Carbohydrate and protein were two major components in all seeds. Cooking increased fibre, total carbohydrate and total and resistant starch contents, but decreased ash content. Protein and oil levels of the cooked samples either decreased or did not change significantly. Seed weight and density decreased with cooking. Hydration and swelling capacities as well as water absorption and holding capacities of cooked chickpeas were higher than raw samples, with the largest increases in the pressure‐cooked seeds. Seed weights were highly correlated with hydration (r = 0.89) and swelling (r = 0.76) rates. Emulsifying activity, emulsifying stability and foaming capacity of cooked chickpea flours decreased, while foaming stability increased. Chickpea flours had pronounced morphological changes after cooking.     

Study of selected quality and agronomic characteristics and their interrelationship in Kabuli‐type chickpea genotypes (Cicer arietinum L.)

Impact of genotype on quality, agronomic characteristics and their interrelationship in Kabuli‐type chickpea was investigated to provide significant feedback to breeder for selection/evolution of the most suitable varieties. Seven genotypes were studied for seventeen physical, chemical and agronomic characteristics. The effect of Kabuli‐type chickpea genotype on the physicochemical parameters, cooking time and agronomic characteristics were significant. Maximum seed size and volume were recorded for CC98/99 (0.32 g and 0.26 mL seed^?1, respectively), density and swelling index for the genotype FLIP97‐179C (having minimum seed size and volume), while the rest of the genotypes were statistically the same. Weight, volume after hydration, hydration capacity and swelling capacity followed the same pattern. Maximum moisture, protein and mineral concentration were noted in CC98/99. Seed protein concentration for the remaining genotypes was statistically non‐significant from one another. Longer period was taken by CM 2000 for flowering and maturity (130 and 181 days, respectively). Minimum time to flowering and maturity was taken by CC98/99. Genotype CC 98/99 outyielded all other genotypes (2107 kg ha^?1). Seed size and seed volume were strongly and positively correlated with protein content, weight after hydration, volume after hydration, hydration and swelling capacities (r = 0.83–1.0). Strong correlation was also noted among different agronomic characters.     

Pattern of egg distribution by Adzuki bean beetle,Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) (Coleoptera: Chysomelidae) in stored chickpea under natural infestation

Under laboratory experimental condition female Adzuki bean beetles, Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) are known to evenly distribute their eggs over grains available for egg laying. However, currently there are no data on pattern of egg distribution by Adzuki bean beetle in large quantity of chickpea grain stored for extended period of time. The objective of this study was to determine the number and distribution of eggs among grains of chickpea stored in large quantity for 8 months and subjected to natural infestations. The experiment was conducted under room temperature and relative humidity at Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center. The chickpea cultivars used were Natoli (desi type, 22 g per 100 seeds with Tuberculated seed coat texture) and Arerti (kabuli type, 26 g per 100 seeds with smooth seed coat texture) and for each cultivar there were 21 replicas of bags (40 cm wide and 70 cm high). From each bag, which contains 10 kg each, 25 chickpea grain samples were randomly selected at monthly intervals and examined for the presence or absence of Adzuki bean beetle eggs. Grains with eggs were categorized into frequency classes (i.e. 0, 1, 2, …, n) based on the number of eggs present on them. The variance to mean ratio was used to decide the type of egg dispersion pattern. In all the sampling dates and on both cultivars, the variance to mean ratios were highly significantly greater than one indicating that egg distribution by female Adzuki bean beetles on grains of chickpea was aggregated type. Moreover, further analysis of data had shown that the egg distribution pattern perfectly fits the negative binomial distribution, which confirms that the pattern of egg distribution on chickpea grains was aggregated/clumped type.