Use of oil in baked products—Part II: Sweet goods and cakes

The discussion on the current trend in the United States to switch from the conventionally accepted lard or partially hydrogenated vegetable shortening to oil as the shortening medium in baked goods is continued. Problems encountered when oil is used to replace the plastic shortenings in sweet doughs and cakes are described. Test work has shown that surfactants are useful tools in counteracting the resultant negative aspects associated with the use of oil. A review of various surfactant systems with oil and their effects on finished sweet dough and cake quality are discussed. Presented at the American Oil Chemists’ Society, San Francisco, CA, April 29–May 2, 1979.     

Use of oil in baked products—Part I: Background and bread

The benefits of fat systems in yeast-raised and chemically leavened baked goods are reviewed. The effects of rising ingredient costs and competition on ingredient technology are described, leading to a discussion concerning the trend in the United States to switch from the standard shortenings—lard and partially hydrogenated vegetable shortening—to oil in baked products. Problems associated with the incorporation of oil in bread formulations follow. Test work has shown that surfactants are effective additives in overcoming these negative and in promoting the production of quality products. A comparison of oil versus lard as the shortening medium in bread is described. Evaluation of emulsifiers with oil in bread are discussed. Presented at the American Oil Chemists’ Society, San Francisco, CA, April 29-May 3, 1979.     

Shortening formulation and control

Shortening provides a significant and increasing proportion of total fat in the diet. Functional and nutritional requirements have contributed significantly to the evolution of formulation and unit processing technology required to produce such products. Evolution of these changes and the effect on shortening requirements are reviewed. Basic structural considerations as well as practical processing characteristics are elucidated. Finally, the effect of such changes on the quality control of shortening manufacture is considered.     

Interaction of lipids with proteins and carbohydrates in breadmaking

After reviewing the evidence for interaction in breadmaking of lipids with proteins and carbohydrates, theories on the shortening response are discussed. Recent studies show that the response cannot be explained entirely on the basis of physical phenomena. Both overall breadmaking quality (presumably related to gluten and its components) and the presence of wheat flour lipids are important in the shortening response. Presented at the AOCS Meeting, New York, May, 1977 (Symposium: Interaction of Oxidized Fats with Amino Acids and Carbohydrates).     

Determination of air content in dry shortenings

A method of test is described for the determination of dry shortening air content. Liquid mediums are prepared which have identical specific gravity to that of the shortening which is under test. Simple calculation of specific gravity data gives the air content. A distinct advantage to the method lies in the fact that air content can be determined for any shortening sample size.     

Effect of emulsifiers on shortenings

The quality of a shortening depends on its physicochemical characteristics. These include amount of solids, texture and melting behavior, among others. The type of shortening, the processing and storage conditions strongly affect these characteristics. Different strategies can be used to formulate shortenings with low trans fatty acids content while maintaining their physicochemical characteristics. This article describes some of these strategies and aims to provide information about the different variables that need to be controlled to obtain a high quality shortening.     

Cartilage Homeostasis and Osteoarthritis

Healthy limb joints are important for maintaining health and attaining longevity. Endochondral ossification (the replacement of cartilage with bone, occurring during skeletal development) is essential for bone formation, especially in long-axis bones. In contrast to endochondral ossification, chondrocyte populations in articular cartilage persist and maintain joint tissue into adulthood. Articular cartilage, a connective tissue consisting of chondrocytes and their surrounding extracellular matrices, plays an essential role in the mechanical cushioning of joints in postnatal locomotion. Osteoarthritis (OA) pathology relates to disruptions in the balance between anabolic and catabolic signals, that is, the loss of chondrocyte homeostasis due to aging or overuse of cartilages. The onset of OA increases with age, shortening a person’s healthy life expectancy. Although many people with OA experience pain, the mainstay of treatment is symptomatic therapy, and no fundamental treatment has yet been established. To establish regenerative or preventative therapies for cartilage diseases, further understanding of the mechanisms of cartilage development, morphosis, and homeostasis is required. In this review, we describe the general development of cartilage and OA pathology, followed by a discussion on anabolic and catabolic signals in cartilage homeostasis, mainly microRNAs.     

Some practical aspects on choosing a shortening for biscuit and cracker manufacture

Stability, or resistance to the development of rancidity is an important factor in determining the suitability of a shortening for biscuit and cracker use. The keeping properties of the fat alone may not be a measure of its stability in a cracker. The Technical Institute accelerated keeping test of shortening in a laboratory cracker is described. Examples are cited showing the effect of light on different shortenings in cookies and crackers. Read by Olive Crane before the A. O. C. S. in Chicago, October, 1937.     

Mechanism of copper electrodeposition by pulse current and its relation to current efficiency

The effects of pulse periods and duty cycles on the current efficiency of acid copper plating in a wide range of pulse periods from 200 to 0.02 ms were studied. It was found the current efficiency decreased with shortening pulses in the millisecond range but increased with shortening pulses in the microsecond range. A mathematical model based on the concept of equivalent circuit was employed to simulate the potential responses. Shortening the pulse period was found to change the rate-determining step from charge transfer and surface diffusion to the first step charge transfer. In the millisecond range, the current efficiency decreases with shortening pulse period due to the disproportionation of cuprous ions and the dissolution of copper adatom. However, in the microsecond range, the current efficiency was found to increase with decreasing pulse period because the adatoms are directly incorporated into steps and kink sites, and the disproportionation of cuprous ions or the dissolution of copper adatoms has less chance to occur.     

Zero‐Trans Cake Shortening: Formulation and Characterization of Physicochemical,Rheological, and Textural Properties

Cake shortening is an important ingredient that imparts taste and texture in the cake as the final product. Hydrogenated shortenings contain high amounts of trans fatty acids, which is considered a risk factor for obesity, cancers, and cardiovascular diseases. In this research, chemically interesterified blends of canola oil (CO) and palm stearin (PS) were recruited in order to formulate zero‐trans shortening, specifically for cake application. The optimization of shortening formulation was performed by Design‐Expert software, considering melting, congelation, textural, and rheological properties of cake shortening as responses. The formulated shortening in the weight ratio of 66.41:33.58 (PS:CO) (%, w/w) was analyzed and compared with two commercial cake shortenings in terms of fatty acid and triacylglycerol composition, slip melting point (SMP), solid fat content (SFC), and rheological and textural properties. The results showed that the formulated zero‐trans cake shortening with 0.2% trans, 47.2% saturated fatty acids, SMP of 40.9 °C, SFC of 10.51% at 37 °C, firmness of 1522.5 g, and linear viscoelastic range of 0.035% had the most acceptable criteria among cake‐shortening samples. The findings of this study offer insights into the relationship between shortening functionality and physicochemical properties and serve as a base for future studies on zero‐trans shortenings formulation.     

Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Induce Fibrosis and Telomere Length Alterations

Telomere shortening can result in cellular senescence and in increased level of genome instability, which are key events in numerous of cancer types. Despite this, few studies have focused on the effect of nanomaterial exposure on telomere length as a possible mechanism involved in nanomaterial-induced carcinogenesis. In this study, effects of exposure to multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) on telomere length were investigated in mice exposed by intrapleural injection, as well as in human lung epithelial and mesothelial cell lines. In addition, cell cycle, apoptosis, and regulation of genes involved in DNA damage repair were assessed. Exposure to MWCNT led to severe fibrosis, infiltration of inflammatory cells in pleura, and mesothelial cell hyperplasia. These histological alterations were accompanied by deregulation of genes involved in fibrosis and immune cell recruitment, as well as a significant shortening of telomeres in the pleura and the lung. Assessment of key carcinogenic mechanisms in vitro confirmed that long-term exposure to the long MWCNT led to a prominent telomere shortening in epithelial cells, which coincided with G1-phase arrest and enhanced apoptosis. Altogether, our data show that telomere shortening resulting in cell cycle arrest and apoptosis may be an important mechanism in long MWCNT-induced inflammation and fibrosis.     

Strain Dependence of the Uniaxial Compression Response of Vegetable Shortening

Many soft food materials, including vegetable shortening, exhibit complex rheological behavior. For shortening, a precise determination of rheological behavior is necessary to understand its functionality as a food ingredient. Commercial vegetable shortening was subjected to monotonic and cyclic uniaxial compression tests at a wide range of loading rates. The elastic modulus determined from unloading was a function of strain, varying between 740 kPa in the shortening’s strain hardening region to 220 kPa at large strain where perfect plasticity had developed. Visual analysis of shortening specimens during the compression process showed that a rate-dependent stress overshoot was attributable to the development of a shear band following strain hardening. An elastoviscoplastic constitutive model was developed to define the complex rate-dependent compression response of vegetable shortening. Using the fundamental parameters obtained from the different types of compression tests, the proposed model accurately predicted the uniaxial compression response of vegetable shortening over a wide range (three decades) of compression rates. A model with predictive capabilities of large strain properties is desirable because shortening is subject to large strain in essentially all applications.     

Cake shortenings

Triglycerides have been traditionally used in cakes to provide tenderness and grain. Specialty cake shortenings are used today to improve batter aeration, cake volume, grain, and to extend shelf life. The role of emulsifiers in providing improved shortening characteristics will be discussed. The features that will contribute to a quality cake shortening - manufacturing procedures, characteristics, and specifications - will be reviewed. Methods of use and handling will be related to cake quality.     

混床制水周期突降的探讨

分析了某电厂化学水处理混床制水周期突降的原因,从仪表测量、设备状况、原水水质、再生用酸碱质量、再生除盐水水质、再生工艺控制、混床树脂状态和混脂用气等可能影响制水周期的因素中进行查找,根据分析结果制定出解决混床制水周期突降的措施,为类似水处理系统异常时的分析处理提供借鉴。     

A determination of the effects of several variables on the performance characteristics of shortening,using statistical experimental designs

To obtain shortening of higher water absorption, one should increase the level of monoglyceride used in the shortening. Icing volume is adversely affected by higher levels of monoglycerides. It is immaterial whether the monoglyceride has 40–44% or 56–58%alpha mono content, and the I.V. may range from 56 to 90 without producing significant effects on water absorption, icing volume, or cake results. Tempering and the choice of vegetable fat or rearranged meat fat stocks are of importance.     

Improvement of the Float-Process Technology

The problems of production of float glass are discussed. The possibilities of shortening the duration of conversion from one type of glass to another on the same production lines, of improving the optical parameters of float glass etc. are demonstrated. The developed techniques make it possible to improved the quality of glass to increase the production volume and expand the product range.     

Functions and requirements of fats and emulsifiers in prepared cake mixes

Accompanying demands for product changes in formulation, recipe preparation and processing of prepared cake mixes have been modifications in the shortening and emulsifier system. Shortenings and emulsifiers are a major consideration in cake mix formulation and can provide the formulator with new opportunities. This research investigates the development of a shortening for a dry cake mix system with consideration given to three major factors. First, the type of fat used—its source, its crystalline structure, its ability to aerate and its physical form. Secondly, the type and amount of emulsifiers—mono- and diglycerides, polyglycerol esters, propylene glycol monoesters and glycerol lacto esters are reported. Third, the processing of the dry mix and its effect on the fat.     

Sodium bisulphite as a stabilizer for hydrogenated cottonseed oil shortening

Hydrogenated, deodorized cottonseed oil shortening, may be given increased keeping time and lowered peroxide values, if treated with small amounts of NaHSO₃ (either the dry powder or a saturated solution). The flavor of the treated shortening will be good if not too much bisulphite is used. The shortening so treated will contain a very small amount of SO₂.     

Stability of fats used for deep fat frying

This paper presents the results of some commercial doughnut frying tests using types of shortening available to the baker. The broad conclusion is that, from the stability viewpoint, the difference in shortening when used for deep fat frying is exaggerated.     

A method for the determination of the water-insoluble combined lactic acid content of shortenings containing lactylated emulsifiers

Shortenings containing glycerol lactopalmitates and glycerol lactostearates are analyzed for water-insoluble combined lactic acid content using a procedure adapted from that of Barker and Summerson (1). Water-soluble constituents are extracted from a chloroform solution of the shortening. The water-washed shortening is saponified and then acidified to release the lactic acid, which is degraded to acetaldehyde by heating with concentrated sulfuric acid. The acetaldehyde is reacted withp-phenyl phenol is concentrated acid solution to produce a purple colored reaction product. The intensity of the color is proportional to the concentration of the acetaldehyde. Absorption is read at 570 mμ using a lithium lactate solution as a standard. The method has been applied to the analysis of shortenings containing from 0.70 to 1.10% water-insoluble combined lactic acid.