Pixel- and feature-level fusion of hyperspectral and lidar data for urban land-use classification

The complexity of urban areas makes it difficult for single-source remotely sensed data to meet all urban application requirements. Airborne light detection and ranging (lidar) can provide precise horizontal and vertical point cloud data, while hyperspectral images can provide hundreds of narrow spectral bands which are sensitive to subtle differences in surface materials. The main objectives of this study are to explore: (1) the performance of fused lidar and hyperspectral data for urban land-use classification, especially the contribution of lidar intensity and height information for land-use classification in shadow areas; and (2) the efficiency of combined pixel- and object-based classifiers for urban land-use classification. Support vector machine (SVM), maximum likelihood classification (MLC), and object-based classifiers were used to classify lidar, hyperspectral data and their derived features, such as the normalized digital surface model (nDSM), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and texture measures, into 15 urban land-use classes. Spatial attributes and rules were used to minimize misclassification of the objects showing similar spectral properties, and accuracy assessments were carried out for the classification results. Compared with hyperspectral data alone, hyperspectral–lidar data fusion improved overall accuracy by 6.8% (from 81.7 to 88.5%) when the SVM classifier was used. Meanwhile, compared with SVM alone, the combined SVM and object-based method improved OA by 7.1% (from 87.6 to 94.7%). The results suggest that hyperspectral–lidar data fusion is effective for urban land-use classification, and the proposed combined pixel- and object-based classifiers are very efficient and flexible for the fusion of hyperspectral and lidar data.     

CHRIS 高光谱图像森林类型分类方法比较研究

以长白山为试验区,选择CHRIS/PROBA高光谱零度角遥感数据,在对其进行预处理的基础上,通过应用最大似然法(MLC)、最小距离法、支持向量机法(SVM)和光谱角填图法(SAM)等几种常用的高光谱遥感分类方法对影像进行森林类型分类。利用混淆矩阵对分类结果进行验证,结果显示:在高光谱遥感森林类型分类中,SVM总体分类精度最高,为84.60％;其次是MLC,为 83.53％,最小距离法73.81％,SAM 56.49％。Kappa系数从高到底为:SVM 0.78,MLC 0.77,最小距离法0.68,SAM 0.52。经过比较分析,得出SVM分类方法精度最高,这表明该方法用于高光谱遥感森林分类中的实用性和优越性。     

多光谱遥感影像的SAM-SID混合分类技术研究

以SPOT 5多光谱影像为数据源,通过与SAM、SID以及常规的最大似然法(ML)和最小距离法(MD)的对比,研究了基于SAM-SID混合法的土地覆盖多光谱遥感分类技术。研究结果显示,相比于SAM和SID,SID(TAN)和SID(SIN)两个SAM-SID混合参量对多光谱影像上地物识别的能力更强,尤以SID(SIN)的识别能力最强;基于SID(SIN)的多光谱遥感分类验证精度达78.94%,不但明显高于SAM和SID法,而且也高于常规的MD和ML监督分类方法。这说明SAM-SID混合分类方法不但适用于高光谱遥感分类,同时在多光谱遥感分类中也有很强的适用性。     

基于SSAE深度学习特征表示的高光谱遥感图像分类方法

针对遥感图像中高光谱数据的分类问题,提出一种基于堆叠稀疏自动编码器(SSAE)深度学习特征表示的高光谱遥感图像分类方法。首先,将光谱数据样本进行预处理和归一化。然后,将其输入到SSAE中进行特征表示学习,并通过网格搜索来获得最优网络参数,以此获得有效的特征表示。最后通过支持向量机(SVM)分类器对输入图像特征进行分类,最终实现遥感图像中像素的分类。在两个标准数据集上的实验结果表明,该方法能够实现准确的高光谱地物分类。     

高光谱影像的BDT-SVM地物分类算法与应用

面对海量数据的特征空间高维性及训练样本的有限性,高光谱遥感影像若采用常规统计模式的分类方法难以获得较好的分类结果。因此探讨支持向量机(SVM)分类器的基本原理,针对EO-1Hyperion高光谱影像的分类特点及现有多类SVM算法所存在的训练时间长及分类精度低等问题,引入二叉决策树SVM(BDT-SVM)分类算法,并提出一种新的类间分离度定义方法及相应的客观确定二叉树结构的策略,由此生成改进的BDT-SVM算法。实验结果表明:与其他多类分类方法相比,基于改进的BDT-SVM算法的高光谱影像地物分类效果更好,总体精度达到90.96%,Kappa系数为0.89,该算法还解决了经典SVM多类分类可能存在的不可分区域问题。     

Image Fusion Based on NSCT and Sparse Representation for Remote Sensing Data

The practice of integrating images from two or more sensors collected from the same area or object is known as image fusion. The goal is to extract more spatial and spectral information from the resulting fused image than from the component images. The images must be fused to improve the spatial and spectral quality of both panchromatic and multispectral images. This study provides a novel picture fusion technique that employs L0 smoothening Filter, Non-subsampled Contour let Transform (NSCT) and Sparse Representation (SR) followed by the Max absolute rule (MAR). The fusion approach is as follows: first, the multispectral and panchromatic images are divided into lower and higher frequency components using the L0 smoothing filter. Then comes the fusion process, which uses an approach that combines NSCT and SR to fuse low frequency components. Similarly, the Max-absolute fusion rule is used to merge high frequency components. Finally, the final image is obtained through the disintegration of fused low and high frequency data. In terms of correlation coefficient, Entropy, spatial frequency, and fusion mutual information, our method outperforms other methods in terms of image quality enhancement and visual evaluation.     

Extreme‐learning‐machine‐based land cover classification

The extreme learning machine (ELM), a single hidden layer neural network based supervised classifier is used for remote sensing classifications. In comparison to the backpropagation neural network, which requires the setting of several user‐defined parameters and may produce local minima, the ELM requires setting of one parameter, and produces a unique solution for a set of randomly assigned weights. Two datasets, one multispectral and another hyperspectral, were used for classification. Accuracies of 89.0% and 91.1% are achieved with this classifier using multispectral and hyperspectral data, respectively. Results suggest that the ELM provides a classification accuracy comparable to a backpropagation neural network with both datasets. The computational cost using the ELM classifier (1.25 s with Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) and 0.675 s with Digital Airborne Imaging Spectrometer (DAIS) data) is very small in comparison to the backpropagation neural network.     

Comparison of hyperspectral imagery with aerial photography and multispectral imagery for mapping broom snakeweed

Broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britt. & Rusby) is one of the most widespread and abundant rangeland weeds in western North America. The objectives of this study were to evaluate airborne hyperspectral imagery and compare it with aerial colour-infrared (CIR) photography and multispectral digital imagery for mapping broom snakeweed infestations. Airborne hyperspectral imagery along with aerial CIR photographs and digital CIR images was acquired from a rangeland area in south Texas. The hyperspectral imagery was transformed using minimum noise fraction (MNF) and then classified using minimum distance, Mahalanobis distance, maximum likelihood, and spectral angle mapper (SAM) classifiers. The digitized aerial photographs and the digital images were respectively mosaicked as one photographic image and one digital image; these were then classified using the same classifiers. Accuracy assessment showed that the maximum likelihood classifier performed the best for the three types of images. The best overall accuracies for three-class classification maps (snakeweed, mixed woody and mixed herbaceous) were 91.0%, 92.5%, and 95.0%, respectively, for the CIR photographic image, the digital CIR image and the MNF-transformed hyperspectral image. Kappa analysis showed that there were no significant differences in maximum likelihood-based classifications among the three types of images. These results indicate that airborne hyperspectral imagery along with aerial photography and multispectral imagery can be used for monitoring and mapping broom snakeweed infestations on rangelands.     

在频谱直方图中应用DT-CWT的人脸检测技术

提出了一种利用双树-复小波变换（DT-CWT）构成频谱直方图并通过支持向量机（SVM）进行人脸检测的方法。在人脸图像的表示中,基于DT-CWT在不同尺度上具有的很好方向选择性,对原始图像滤波,并与其它滤波器卷积滤波后得到原始图像的不同频率特征一起构成频谱直方图,该直方图在图像的表示上具有很好的本质扩展性。通过支持向量机（SVM）对频谱直放图向量进行分类训练,得到了有效区分人脸与非人脸的分类函数。实验显示,DT-CWT具有与Gabor变换类似的性质,而且计算冗余度更小,计算速度更快。应用DT-CWT频谱直方图的人脸检测算法取得了令人满意的结果。     

基于独立分量分析和支持向量机的遥感影像融合分类算法

遥感影像分类是遥感定量化分析的重要手段,遥感影像融合是提高分类正确率的有效途径之一。本文提出一种遥感影像的融合分类算法。首先采用Contourlet变换对多光谱影像和全色影像进行融合,然后结合独立分量分析的去相关性、稀疏特性以及很好地捕捉影像重要边缘信息、纹理信息的能力,提取融合影像的独立分量特征,并用支持向量机实现分类。与其他算法的主、客观比较结果表明,该算法的实验效果较好,可有效地提高遥感影像的分类精度。     

3D卷积自编码器高光谱图像分类模型

目的 高光谱图像分类是遥感领域的基础问题，高光谱图像同时包含丰富的光谱信息和空间信息，传统模型难以充分利用两种信息之间的关联性，而以卷积神经网络为主的有监督深度学习模型需要大量标注数据，但标注数据难度大且成本高。针对现有模型的不足，本文提出了一种无监督范式下的高光谱图像空谱融合方法，建立了3D卷积自编码器（3D convolutional auto-encoder，3D-CAE）高光谱图像分类模型。方法 3D卷积自编码器由编码器、解码器和分类器构成。将高光谱数据预处理后，输入到编码器中进行无监督特征提取，得到一组特征图。编码器的网络结构为3个卷积块构成的3D卷积神经网络，卷积块中加入批归一化技术防止过拟合。解码器为逆向的编码器，将提取到的特征图重构为原始数据，用均方误差函数作为损失函数判断重构误差并使用Adam算法进行参数优化。分类器由3层全连接层组成，用于判别编码器提取到的特征。以3D-CNN （three dimensional convolutional neural network）为自编码器的主干网络可以充分利用高光谱图像的空间信息和光谱信息，做到空谱融合。以端到端的方式对模型进行训练可以省去复杂的特征工程和数据预处理，模型的鲁棒性和稳定性更强。结果 在Indian Pines、Salinas、Pavia University和Botswana等4个数据集上与7种传统单特征方法及深度学习方法进行了比较，本文方法均取得最优结果，总体分类精度分别为0.948 7、0.986 6、0.986 2和0.964 9。对比实验结果表明了空谱融合和无监督学习对于高光谱遥感图像分类的有效性。结论 本文模型充分利用了高光谱图像的光谱特征和空间特征，可以做到无监督特征提取，无需大量标注数据的同时分类精度高，是一种有效的高光谱图像分类方法。     

Fusion and registration of THEOS multispectral and panchromatic images

This article presents a new method for the fusion and registration of THEOS (Thailand Earth Observation Satellite) multispectral and panchromatic images in a single step. In the usual procedure, fusion is an independent process separated from the registration process. However, both image registration and fusion can be formulated as estimation problems. Hence, the registration parameters can be automatically tuned so that both fusion and registration can be optimized simultaneously. Here, we concentrate on the relationship between low-resolution multispectral and high-resolution panchromatic imagery. The proposed technique is based on a statistical framework. It employs the maximum a posteriori (MAP) criterion to jointly solve the fusion and registration problem. Here, the MAP criterion selects the most likely fine resolution multispectral and mapping parameter based on observed coarse resolution multispectral and fine resolution panchromatic images. The Metropolis algorithm was employed as the optimization algorithm to jointly determine the optimum fine resolution multispectral image and mapping parameters. In this work, a closed-form solution that can find the fused multispectral image with correcting registration is also derived. In our experiment, a THEOS multispectral image with high spectral resolution and a THEOS panchromatic image with high spatial resolution are combined to produce a multispectral image with high spectral and spatial resolution. The results of our experiment show that the quality of fused images derived directly from misaligned image pairs without registration error correction can be very poor (blurred and containing few sharp edges). However, with the ability to jointly fuse and register an image pair, the quality of the resulting fused images derived from our proposed algorithm is significantly improved, and, in the simulated cases, the fused images are very similar to the original high resolution multispectral images, regardless of the initial registration errors.     

Comparative Study of ELM and SVM in Hyperspectral Image Supervision Classification

Combining the spatial features and spectral feature of hyperspectral remote sensing image in supervised classification can effectively improve the classification time and accuracy.In this study,the spatial information extraction method,named watershed transform,was combined with the Extreme Learning Machine(ELM)and Support Vector Machine(SVM)methods.The classification results of the datasets with the spatial features and without the spatial features were synthetically evaluated and compared.Two hyperspectral datasets,the ROSIS data of Pavia university and the Hyperion data of Okavango Delta(Botswana),were selected to test the methods.After preprocessing,the training samples were selected from the images as the reference areas for each type,and the spectral features of each type were analyzed.The two classification methods were utilized to classify the hyperspectral datasets and relevant classification results were obtained.based on the validation samples selected from the images,the classification results were evaluated using the confusion matrix and the execution times.After that,the spectral features and spatial features were combined to classify the data.The results show that the Extreme Learning Machine(ELM) is superior to the Support Vector Machine(SVM)in the classification time and precision,and the spatial features are introduced in the classification process,which can effectively improve the classification accuracy.     

基于Iαβ色彩空间和Contourlet变换相结合的融合方法*

针对北京1号小卫星的多光谱与全色波段的分辨率比率较大,传统的融合方法会产生边界模糊和光谱扭曲现象,提出了一种新的融合算法。首先对多光谱与全色影像分别进行Iαβ和Contourlet变换;然后在频率域中采用不同的融合策略进行处理;最后进行Contourlet和Iαβ逆变换,得到融合图像。实验表明,本方法既提高了融合图像的空间细节信息又很好地保持了图像的光谱特征,优于传统的融合方法。     

Cloud removal for hyperspectral remotely sensed images based on hyperspectral information fusion

ABSTRACT

Hyperspectral remote sensing plays an important role in a wide variety of fields. However, its specific application for land surface analysis has been constrained due to the different shapes of thick, opaque cloud cover. The reconstruction of missing information obscured by clouds in remote-sensing images is an area of active research. However, most of the available cloud-removal methods are not suitable for hyperspectral images, because they lose the spectral information which is very important for hyperspectral analysis. In this article, we developed a new spectral resolution enhancement method for cloud removal (SREM-CR) from hyperspectral images, with the help of an auxiliary cloud-free multispectral image acquired at different times. In the fixed hyperspectral image, spectra of the cloud cover pixels are reconstructed depending on the relationship between the original hyperspectral and multispectral images. The final resulting image has the same spectral resolution as the original hyperspectral image but without clouds. This approach was tested on two experiments, in which the results were compared by visual interpretation and statistical indices. Our method demonstrated good performance.     

Influence of image fusion approaches on classification accuracy: a case study

While many studies in the field of image fusion of remotely sensed data aim towards deriving new algorithms for visual enhancement, there is little research on the influence of image fusion on other applications. One major application in earth science is land cover mapping. The concept of sensors with multiple spatial resolutions provides a potential for image fusion. It minimises errors of geometric alignment and atmospheric or temporal changes.

This study focuses on the influence of image fusion on spectral classification algorithms and their accuracy. A Landsat 7 ETM+ image was used, where six multispectral bands (30 m) were fused with the corresponding 15 m panchromatic channel. The fusion methods comprise rather common techniques like Brovey, hue‐saturation‐value transform, and principal component analysis, and more complex approaches, including adaptive image fusion, multisensor multiresolution image fusion technique, and wavelet transformation. Image classification was performed with supervised methods, e.g. maximum likelihood classifier, object‐based classification, and support vector machines. The classification was assessed with test samples, a clump analysis, and techniques accounting for classification errors along land cover boundaries. It was found that the adaptive image fusion approach shows best results with low noise content. It resulted in a major improvement when compared with the reference, especially along object edges. Acceptable results were achieved by wavelet, multisensor multiresolution image fusion, and principal component analysis. Brovey and hue‐saturation‐value image fusion performed poorly and cannot be recommended for classification of fused imagery.     

基于归一化相关矩的多分辨率遥感图象融合

多传感器数据融合技术已广泛应用于遥感图象处理方面 .针对遥感多光谱图象空间分辨率较低的问题 ,提出了一种基于归一化相关矩的多分辨率图象融合方法 .该方法首先对图象进行二维小波变换 ,然后根据所得到的高频小波系数的一阶、二阶统计特征来定义图象局部灰度相关矩 ,并以此作为图象融合测度来对遥感图象进行多分辨率特征融合 ,从而得到包含更多信息和有效特征的融合图象 .仿真结果表明 ,融合后的图象在保留多光谱信息和提高空间分辨率上均能获得较好的效果 ,因而可以更好地用于目标识别、分类等遥感图象处理方面     

Sentinel-2 Satellite Image Fusion Methodand Quality Evaluation Analysis

Sentinel-2 satellite sensors acquire three kinds of optical remote sensing images with different spatial resolutions.How to improve the spatial resolution of lower spatial resolution bands by fusion method is one of the problems faced by Sentinel-2 applications.Taking the Sentinel\|2B image as the data source,a high spatial resolution band was generated or selected from the four 10m spatial resolution bands by four methods:the maximum correlation coefficient,the central wavelength nearest neighbor,the pixel maximum and the principal component analysis.We fused the one high spatial resolution band produced and six multispectral bands with 20 m spatial resolution by the five fusion methods of PCA,HPF,WT,GS and Pansharp to produce six multispectral bands with 10 m spatial resolution and the fusion results were evaluated from three aspects:qualitative and quantitative (information entropy,average gradient,spectral correlation coefficient,root mean square error and general image quality index) and classification accuracy of fused images.Results show that the fusion quality of Pansharp with the maximum correlation coefficient is better than other fusion methods,and the classification accuracy is slightly lower than the GS with the pixel maximum of the highest classification accuracy and far higher than the original four multispectral image with 10 m spatial resolution.According to the classification accuracy of experimental data,different fusion methods have different advantages in extraction of different ground objects.In application,appropriate schemes should be selected according to actual research needs.This research can provide reference for Sentinel-2 satellite and similar satellite data processing and application.     

Does single broadband or multispectral thermal data add information for classification of visible,near‐ and shortwave infrared imagery of urban areas?

The potential value of combining broadband and multispectral thermal infrared (TIR) data with multispectral and hyperspectral visible, near‐infrared (VNIR) and shortwave infrared (SWIR) data was investigated within the context of urban land‐cover classification. Using a case study of airborne Digital Airborne Imaging Spectrometer (DAIS) imagery of Strasbourg, France, the relative contribution of TIR wavelengths to classification accuracy was investigated for hyperspectral and simulated multispectral IKONOS, SPOT and Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) bands. A support vector machines (SVM) classifier was used because this method was found to be very effective at handling the complex distributions of the heterogeneous land cover classes. The overall classification accuracy varied greatly with different band combinations. The inclusion of a single broad thermal band increased classification accuracy by as much as 20% for simulated IKONOS bands, but only 4% for hyperspectral VNIR and SWIR data. Adding multispectral TIR data raised the average accuracy approximately a further 10% for each band combination studied. Thermal wavelengths were found to be particularly useful for reducing the confusion between road and roof surfaces.     

Hyperspectral image classification based on bilateral filter with linear spatial correlation information

Support Vector Machine (SVM) with the margin theory is widely used for the hyperspectral classification. However, the margin model is a single interval and does not represent the complete distribution of hyperspectral image data sets. In addition, the spatial texture information obtained by filtering in recent years has become a hot research topic for improving classification of hyperspectral images, but the spatial correlation information is often lost in the spatial texture information extraction. To solve this problem, this paper proposed an algorithm with large margin distribution machine (LDM) that combined the spatial information obtained by the bilateral filter and linear spatial correlation information (BFLSCI-LDM). First, spatial features were extracted by bilateral filter from hyperspectral image whose dimensionality was reduced by principal component analysis. Next, the linear spatial correlation information was constructed for hyperspectral images. Finally, the spatial information and original spectral information were combined for LDM. The experimental results of actual hyperspectral images indicated that the proposed BFLSCI-LDM method was superior to other classification methods, including the original SVM with the raw spectral features, the dimensionality reduction features, and spatial-spectral information, the method of edge-preserving filter and recursive filter, and the LDM-based method.