Effect of the increase in the entrance convergent section length of the gun nozzle on the high-velocity oxygen fuel and cold spray process

Nozzle geometry, which influences combustion gas dynamics and, therefore, sprayed particle behavior, is one of the most important parameters in the high-velocity oxygen-fuel (HVOF) thermal spray process. The nozzle geometry is also important in the cold spray method. The gas flows in the entrance convergent section of the nozzle exhibit a relatively higher temperature and are subsonic; thus, this region is most suitable for heating spray particles. In this study, numerical simulation and experiments investigated the effect of the entrance geometry of the gun nozzle on the HVOF process. The process changes inside the nozzle, as obtained by numerical simulation studies, were related to the coating properties. An Al₂O₃-40 mass% TiO₂ powder was used for the experimental studies. The change in entrance convergent section length (rather than barrel part length or total length) of the gun nozzle had a significant effect on the deposition efficiency, microstructure, and hardness. The deposition efficiency and hardness increased as this geometry increased. On the other hand, the calculated and measured particle velocity showed a slight decrease. This effect on the HVOF process will also be applied to the nozzle design for the cold spray method.     

高速低温喷涂气固作用行为及喷涂系统研究进展

高速低温喷涂是利用固相或含固相的低温粉末在高速度、高动能作用下碰撞基体表面沉积的喷涂方法,具有氧化轻微、 结合牢固、组织致密、综合力学性能优异等潜在优势,在高性能金属或金属基复合材料涂层制备、增材制造和零件损伤修复等领域获得广泛关注。以粉末低温高速碰撞沉积过程为主线,凝练现有冷喷涂和低温超音速火焰喷涂两种具体工艺的共性特征,阐明喷涂气流与粉末颗粒的气固两相交互作用规律,分析出合理调控颗粒温度和速度是改善沉积体性能的关键。其次分析高速低温喷涂设备系统的构成,详细讨论各核心部件的结构设计策略及对气固流动行为的影响,总结出通过调整工艺参数与喷枪结构,可以实现颗粒温度和速度的按需控制。最后,对高速低温喷涂工艺及设备系统发展目前尚存的关键问题进行展望。总结如何通过喷涂参数与装置设计,最终达成调控沉积体性能的目的,有助于深入理解高速低温喷涂的沉积机理,对研制高性能的喷涂设备系统具有参考意义。     

Optimization of spray conditions in cold spraying based on numerical analysis of particle velocity

The effects of the parameters involved in cold spray on the acceleration of particles are systematically investigated by a CFD code in order to reveal the main factors influencing significantly particle velocity. The parameters involved include nozzle geometry parameters, processing parameters and properties of spray particles. It is found that driving gas type, operating pressure and temperature are main processing parameters which influence particle velocity. As for nozzle geometry, the expansion ratio and divergent section length of spray gun nozzle show significant effects. Moreover, the density, size and morphology of powder also have significant effects on particle velocity. The effects of those main parameters are summarized in a comprehensive equation obtained through nonlinear regression of the simulated results for the estimation of particle velocity. The interactions of the parameters on particle acceleration can be examined through the equation. Moreover, the optimization of the dimensions of spray gun nozzle and spray parameters can be realized based on the obtained results.     

Numerical analysis of the effect of arc spray gun configuration parameters on the external gas flow

The objective of present study is to investigate the effect of different gun configuration parameters on the external gas flow by using a CFD model, and to optimize the design of an arc spray gun based on the modeling results. A converging nozzle and a converging/diverging nozzle for arc spraying were compared by calculating their flow distributions using a two-dimensional (2D) axially symmetrical model. Other parameters such as location of the intersection position and angle between the two wires were also analyzed in a three-dimensional (3D) model. The results show that the converging/diverging nozzle is more favorable for droplet atomization, moving the intersection position from the nozzle outside to the nozzle exit and using a moderate intersection angle are better for improving the flow dynamics properties. Consequently, an innovative design to upgrade the original HAS-01 type gun was put forward, and the modified design was experimentally compared with the original one by measuring the in-flight droplet size and velocity.     

Interaction of particles with carrier gas in HVOF spraying systems

Several designs of high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) thermal spray systems have been created during the last decade. The most advanced systems are now producing coatings comparable in quality to detonation (D-gun) coatings. This paper presents numerical analysis of the interaction of dispersive particles with the carrying gas flow for three different HVOF systems, along with a method to calculate the parameters of sprayed particles that highlights the advantages and limitations of each design. The method includes gas dynamical calculations of the gas flow in an accelerating channel and calculations of the injected par-motion and thermal state (temperature and melted mass fraction). The calculations were performed for particles of tungsten carbide, aluminum oxide, and zirconium oxide with size distributions of 10 to 80 μm. Two conventional types of HVOF systems were considered: those with a supersonic accelerating channel and those with a subsonic accelerating channel (without a de Laval nozzle). A novel design is pro-posed that contains a combined gas dynamical path with functionally separated regions of heating and acceleration. The regularities and distinctions in the behavior of the metallic and ceramic oxide particles are discussed for different jet configurations. The results obtained indicate that it is possible to signifi-cantly affect particle parameters by using the new configuration solutions without creating construction complications.     

Preliminary study on the TriplexPro™-200 gun for atmospheric plasma spraying of yttria-stabilized zirconia

The recently introduced three-cathode TriplexPro™-200 atmospheric plasma spray gun was tested with yttria-stabilized zirconia. The effects on the particle characteristics (velocity and surface temperature) were measured by time-of-flight measurement and two-color pyrometry, respectively (DPV-2000 diagnostic system) while the arc current intensity, the plasma gas flow, and its composition were systematically varied.With typical spray parameters of the Triplex® II, using the TriplexPro™-200 with the 9.0 mm nozzle the particle characteristics were found to be almost the same while the nozzle still provides power reserves. In this case, helium may be dispensed with entirely.Using the 6.5 mm or the 5.0 mm nozzle operation is limited to a maximum 500 A current, which significantly increased particle velocities, but it was not possible to keep the particles fully molten. The investigated range of powder grain size (d₅₀ = 58 μm) is to be considered with these parameters. Further possibilities are to be expected with the 6.5 mm and 5.0 mm nozzle using smaller-sized or lower-melting powders.Operating the TriplexPro™-200 gun with the 11.0 mm nozzle and/or nitrogen as secondary plasma gas instead of helium, increased particle temperatures and velocities are achievable. This offers extended possibilities to spray high-melting oxide ceramics like yttria-partially stabilized zirconia.     

大功率超音速等离子弧喷枪的研制

提出了大功率超音速等离子弧喷枪的设计原则和要求,经多次试验、改进,设计出双水内冷、双气路、双喷嘴的喷枪,其设计巧妙、结构合理、性能优良,满足了在大功率条件下对各种粉末材料的超音速喷涂。     

Particle Acceleration in a High Enthalpy Nozzle Flow with a Modified Detonation Gun

The quality of thermal sprayed coatings depends on many factors which have been investigated and are still in scientific focus. Mostly, the coating material is inserted into the spray device as solid powder. The particle condition during the spray process has a strong effect on coating quality. In some cases, higher particle impact energy leads to improved coating quality. Therefore, a computer-controlled detonation gun based spraying device has been designed and tested to obtain particle velocities over 1200 m/s. The device is able to be operated in two modes based on different flow-physical principles. In one mode, the device functions like a conventional detonation gun in which the powder is accelerated in a blast wave. In the other mode, an extension with a nozzle transforms the detonation gun process into an intermittent shock tunnel process in which the particles are accelerated in a high enthalpy nozzle flow with high reservoir conditions. Presented are experimental results of the operation with nozzle in which the device generates very high particle velocities up to a frequency of 5 Hz. A variable particle injection system allows injection of the powder at any point along the nozzle axis to control particle temperature and velocity. A hydrogen/oxygen mixture is used in the experiments. Operation performance and nozzle outflow are characterized by time resolved pressure measurements. The particle conditions inside the nozzle and in the nozzle exit plane are calculated with a quasi-one-dimensional WENO-code of high order. For the experiments, particle velocity is obtained by particle image velocimetry, and particle concentration is qualitatively determined by a laser extinction method. The powders used are WC-Co(88/12), NiCr(80/20), Al₂O₃, and Cu. Different substrate/powder combinations for varying particle injection positions have been investigated by light microscopy and measurements of microhardness.     

喷嘴形状对Al2O3-3TiO2粒子扁平化及其涂层性能的影响*

采用SprayWatch在线监测系统测量了F6大气等离子喷枪在不同喷嘴条件下产生的等离子射流中Al2O3-3TiO2粒子的温度和速度。利用201不锈钢和Q235钢作为基体,分别用来收集粒子和制备涂层。分析了不同喷嘴对飞行粒子温度和速度的影响,并通过扫描电镜(SEM)对扁平粒子的铺展程度和涂层显微组织进行了分析,并对比了涂层的结合强度、显微硬度和磨损失重量的差异。结果表明:在相同的测量位置,圆柱形喷嘴喷出粒子的速度比Laval喷嘴条件下的高出一倍,但是温度比Laval喷嘴条件下略低。圆柱形喷嘴获得的扁平粒子比Laval喷嘴获得的扁平粒子铺展程度要大;圆柱形喷嘴获得的涂层的孔隙率及磨损失重量比Laval喷嘴制备的小,其涂层的结合强度、显微硬度均高于Laval喷嘴制备的涂层。     

Numerical modeling of in-flight characteristics of inconel 625 particles during high-velocity oxy-fuel thermal spraying

A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model is developed to predict particle dynamic behavior in a high-velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) thermal spray gun in which premixed oxygen and propylene are burnt in a combustion chamber linked to a long, parallel-sided nozzle. The particle transport equations are solved in a Lagrangian manner and coupled with the two-dimensional, axisymmetric, steady state, chemically reacting, turbulent gas flow. Within the particle transport model, the total flow of the particle phase is modeled by tracking a small number of particles through the continuum gas flow, and each of these individual particles is tracked independently through the continuous phase. Three different combustion chamber designs were modeled, and the in-flight particle characteristics of Inconel were 625 studied. Results are presented to show the effect of process parameters, such as particle injection speed and location, total gas flow rate, fuel-to-oxygen gas ratio, and particle size on the particle dynamic behavior for a parallel-sided, 12 mm long combustion chamber. The results indicate that the momentum and heat transfer to particles are primarily influenced by total gas flow. The 12 mm long chamber can achieve an optimum performance for Inconel 625 powder particles ranging in diameter from 20 to 40 μm. At a particular spraying distance, an optimal size of particles is observed with respect to particle temperature. The effect of different combustion chamber dimensions on particle dynamics was also investigated. The results obtained for both a 22 mm long chamber and also one with a conical, converging design are compared with the baseline data for the 12 mm chamber.     

大功率等离子喷涂枪的设计

针对等离子喷涂大功率化的要求，设计了大功率等离子喷涂枪，利用二次喷嘴，功率可达100kW以上，喷嘴管型采用拉筏儿管，使等离子焰流速度达到超音速，出口的焰流为匀直流，利用双水内冷，分别调节钨极与喷嘴的冷动水流量，从而控制等离子流的热焓，有效提高了能源利用率，延长了喷枪的使用寿命。     

Computational fluid dynamic modeling of gas flow characteristics in a high-velocity oxy-fuel thermal spray system

A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model is developed to predict gas dynamic behavior in a high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) thermal spray gun in which premixed oxygen and propylene are burnt in a 12 mm combustion chamber linked to a parallel-sided nozzle. The CFD analysis is applied to investigate axisymmetric, steady-state, turbulent, compressible, and chemically combusting flow both within the gun and in a free jet region between the gun and the substrate to be coated. The combustion of oxygen and propylene is modeled using a single-step, finite-rate chemistry model that also allows for dissociation of the reaction products. Results are presented to show the effect of (1) fuel-to-oxygen gas ratio and (2) total gas flow rate on the gas dynamic behavior. Along the centerline, the maximum temperature reached is insensitive to the gas ratio but depends on the total flow. However, the value attained (∼2500 K) is significantly lower than the maximum temperature (∼3200 K) of the annular flame in the combustion chamber. By contrast, the centerline gas velocity depends on both total flow and gas ratio, the highest axial gas velocity being attained with the higher flow and most fuel-rich mixture. The gas Mach number increases through the gun and reaches a maximum value of approximately 1.6 around 5 mm downstream from the nozzle exit. The numerical calculations also show that the residual oxygen level is principally dependent on the fuel-to-oxygen ratio and decreases by approximately fivefold as the ratio is varied from 90 to 69% of the stoichiometric requirement. The CFD model is also used to investigate the effect of changes in combustion chamber size and geometry on gas dynamics, and the results are compared with the nominal 12 mm chamber baseline calculations.     

Effects of spray conditions on coating formation by the kinetic spray process

The kinetic spray coating process involves impingement of a substrate by particles of various material types at high velocities. In the process, particles are injected into a supersonic gas stream and accelerated to high velocities. A coating forms when the particles become plastically deformed and bond to the substrate and to one another upon collision with the substrate. Coating formation by the kinetic spray process can be affected by a number of process parameters. In the current study, several spray variables were investigated through computational modeling and experiments. The examined variables include the temperature and pressure of the primary gas, the cross-sectional area of the nozzle throat, the nozzle standoff distance from a substrate, and the surface condition of nozzle interior and the powder gas flow. Experimental verification on the effects of these variables was performed primarily using relatively large-size aluminum particles (63–90 μm) as the feedstock material. It was observed that the coating formation is largely controlled by two fundamental variables of the sprayed particles: particle velocity and particle temperature. The effects of different spray conditions on coating formation by the kinetic spray process can be generally interpreted through their influences on particle velocity and/or particle temperature. Though it is limited to accelerate large particles to high velocities using compressed air or nitrogen as carrier gas, increasing particle temperature provides an additional means that can effectively enhance coating formation by the kinetic spray process.     

钢轨轨面静电喷涂SiO2增黏颗粒行为与利用率研究

目的 为了改善传统撒砂过程中SiO2增黏微粒利用率低的问题,将静电喷涂技术引入轮轨增黏领域,研究不同喷涂参数与颗粒粒径对SiO2微粒行为与利用率的影响,并进一步对比分析静电喷涂微粒与传统撒砂的增黏效果。方法 利用Gema静电喷枪与静电喷涂动态试验平台进行喷涂试验;利用MJP–30A轮轨滚动磨损与接触疲劳试验机进行轮轨黏着与磨损试验;利用光学显微镜(OM)对SiO2微粒吸附情况进行观察与分析,并通过电子天平测量与计算轨面颗粒量与颗粒利用率。结果 相较于未施加静电电压,静电电压为90 kV时轨面颗粒量提升了3.8倍。静电电压由30 kV增加至70 kV时,颗粒利用率提升约60%;当静电电压进一步增加至90 kV时,由于颗粒带电量趋于饱和,颗粒利用率仅提升10%。SiO2微粒利用率随着喷嘴高度与颗粒粒径的增大先增大后减小,喷嘴高度为25 cm且颗粒粒径为300目时颗粒利用率最高,可达60%;300目SiO2微粒在静电电压为90 kV时,随着喷枪移速的增大,喷枪在单位距离上喷涂时间相对减少,使得喷涂在钢轨轨面的颗粒量降低。90 kV静电喷涂SiO2微粒增黏时,最大黏着系数接近传统撒砂增黏,有效作用时间是传统撒砂的2.2倍,轮轨磨损率仅为传统撒砂增黏的75%与65%,轮轨损伤显著减轻。结论 利用静电喷涂技术可以有效提升SiO2微粒在钢轨轨面的利用率,并提升颗粒在轨面的吸附性;静电喷涂SiO2微粒增黏与传统撒砂增黏的黏着系数相近,且轮轨磨损率更低。     

限制高速火焰喷涂发展的主要因素研究

近年来高速火焰喷涂取得了飞速的发展,尽管热喷涂市场上的多种ＨＶＯＦ系统结构各异,但对系统的性能要求是一致的,即：在有限的热量条件下,使喷涂材料达到习可能高的速度以获得结构致密的涂层,而涂层材料本身不发生相变或氧化。ＨＶＯＦ的现有模式几乎都是以燃烧室或加速喷管内高速焰流的稳定燃烧作为系统设计的理论模型,然而随着ＨＶＯＦ技术的不断发展,我们面临着两个问题迫切有待于解决;（１）颗粒速度倒底能被加速到多大     

Theoretical and Experimental Particle Velocity in Cold Spray

In an effort to corroborate theoretical and experimental techniques used for cold spray particle velocity analysis, two theoretical and one experimental methods were used to analyze the operation of a nozzle accelerating aluminum particles in nitrogen gas. Two-dimensional (2D) axi-symmetric computations of the flow through the nozzle were performed using the Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes code in a computational fluid dynamics platform. 1D, isentropic, gas-dynamic equations were solved for the same nozzle geometry and initial conditions. Finally, the velocities of particles exiting a nozzle of the same geometry and operated at the same initial conditions were measured by a dual-slit velocimeter. Exit plume particle velocities as determined by the three methods compared reasonably well, and differences could be attributed to frictional and particle distribution effects.     

Gas dynamic principles of cold spray

This paper presents an analytical model of the cold-spray process. By assuming a one-dimensional isentropic flow and constant gas properties, analytical equations are solved to predict the spray particle velocities. The solutions demonstrate the interaction between the numerous geometric and material properties. The analytical results allow determination of an optimal design for a cold-spray nozzle. The spray particle velocity is determined to be a strong function of the gas properties, particle material density, and size. It is also shown that the system performance is sensitive to the nozzle length, but not sensitive to the nozzle shape. Thus, it is often possible to use one nozzle design for a variety of operational conditions. Many of the results obtained in this article are also directly applicable to other thermal spray processes.     

Numerical modeling of a low temperature high velocity air fuel spraying process with injection of liquid and metal particles

An analysis of a low temperature high velocity air fuel (LTHVAF) thermal spray process is presented using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The originality of the process lies in the injection of liquid (water) upstream of the powder injection to control to gas temperature and, therefore, the heat transfer to the injected particles. First, computation fluid dynamic techniques are implemented to solve the mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations in the gas phase. A turbulence model based on the renormalized group theory (RNG) is used for the turbulent flow field. The gas dynamic data are, then, used to model the behavior of the liquid droplets and particles in the gas flow field. The calculated results show that the liquid flow rate should range between 20 and 30 kg/h to achieve the optimal gas characteristics for particle treatment. They also show that particle velocity and temperature are strongly affected by particle size. At the gun exit, the particle velocity and temperature range between 700 and 300 m/s and between 900 and 400 K, respectively, for Cu and Ni particles with size distributions of 1 to 50 μm. As expected, the smaller particles have higher velocity and temperature. The metal coatings (Nickel and copper) produced by the LTHVAF spray process are characterized by low oxide content, low residual stresses, high deposition rates, and good bonding to the substrate.     

Effect of Using Liquid Feedstock in a High Pressure Cold Spray Nozzle

This study investigates the effect of water injection in the high pressure chamber of a cold spray nozzle. A De Laval nozzle geometry with constant back pressure and temperature is modeled numerically using Reynolds Stress Model coupled equations. Water spray with a droplet size of 10-100 ??m is modeled using both uniform and Rosin-Rammler size distributions. The two-phase flow of gas-liquid is modeled using an unsteady discrete phase mass source with two-way coupling with the main gas flow. Upon injection, the droplets in the water spray evaporate while travelling through the nozzle due to momentum and energy exchange with the gas flow. The evaporation behavior in the presence of water content is modeled and a correlation between the initial diameter and the diameter just before the throat is obtained. As a result, the proper droplet size distribution with a fully evaporative spray can be used as a carrier of nano-particles in cold spray nozzles. Having the results, guides us to substitute the un-evaporated part of the droplet with an equal diameter agglomerate of nano-particles and find a minimum fraction of nano-particles suspended in the liquid which guarantees fully evaporative liquid spray injection.     

喷射电沉积技术制备Co-Cr_3C_2复合镀层的工艺优化

为提高微米级硬质陶瓷颗粒在金属基复合镀层的含量,制备性能优异的防护性镀层,采用喷射电沉积的方法在直流电压下制备了Co-Cr_3C_2复合镀层,利用控制变量法探讨了电流密度、固体颗粒用量、镀液流量以及喷枪移动速度等对镀层中颗粒含量及镀层性能的影响,并分析了各因素的影响机理。同时,分别采用能谱仪、显微硬度计和摩擦磨损试验机对复合镀层的成分、硬度和摩擦因数进行分析,最终确定了制备该复合镀层的较优工艺参数。结果显示:喷头移动速度对颗粒复合量的影响最为显著;颗粒复合量越大,复合镀层硬度越高、摩擦因数越低;在较优工艺参数下制备的Co-Cr_3C_2复合镀层的Cr_3C_2颗粒含量高达23.6%。