Composition and in vitro digestibility of raw versus cooked white‐ and colour‐flowered peas

Ten pea cultivars (four white‐flowered, Pisum sativum ssp. hortense, and six colour‐flowered, Pisum sativum ssp. arvense) grown in Latvia were analyzed and tested in in vitro experiments, as raw and cooked seeds. The colour‐flowered (CF) had a greater proportion of hulls and a higher acid detergent fibre (ADF) content than white‐flowered (WF) pea seeds (10.7 vs. 8.2% and 92.2 vs. 84.5 g/kg dry matter (DM), respectively). Three out of six CF varieties had a significantly greater amount of protein bound to neutral detergent fibre (NDF) than WF peas. The tannin content was higher in CF than in WF peas (8.46 vs. 0.37 g/kg DM). In vitro protein and amino acid digestibility was about 8% higher in WF than in CF varieties. Cooking decreased the tannin content in CF peas (8.46 vs. 5.51 g/kg DM) but had no effect on in vitro protein digestibility. Heat treatment reduced significantly trypsin inhibitor activity and amount of protein bound to NDF in CF and WF varieties (from 6.50 to 0.52 and from 6.54 to 0.46 trypsin inhibitor units (TIU)/mg DM; from 1.250 to 0.831 and 0.761 to 0.209 g N/100 g NDF, respectively). However, the protein bound to NDF content in pea DM increased in CF and decreased in WF varieties (from 1.525 to 2.145 and from 0.913 to 0.502 g N/kg DM, respectively). Cooking resulted in an increased NDF content over two times in both CF and WF pea seeds (from 122 to 259 and from 120 to 262 g/kg DM, respectively). The results suggest that colour‐flowered pea may be considered as an interesting dietary alternative to white‐flowered pea since cooking removes trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), decreases tannins, and increases dietary fibre contents.     

Metabolic changes of biochemical constituents in developing fennel seeds (Foeniculum vulgare)

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is the major spice/condimental crop of Haryana, generally used in India for preparing pickles and in vegetable cooking. Flowers were tagged at anthesis, fennel seeds (local variety) were collected at 1-week intervals after 40 days from anthesis for studying biochemical constituents. Moisture and protein contents decreased significantly with the advancement of seed development. Oil content ranged from 68 to 135·7 g kg^?1 (dry weight basis), which increased with seed development. The oil content was greater in mature seeds. The presence of phytate (11·35–13·10 mg g^?1) was also observed, which affects the availability of Zn and Fe. Fennel seeds were found to be a rich source of micro- and macroelements. Neutral detergent fibre, acid detergent fibre, cellulose and lignin contents increased significantly with the advancement of seed development. Oleic and linoleic fatty acids were found to be major fatty acids and variable proportions of different fatty acids were observed.     

The study of Clitoria Ternatea L. hay as a forage alternative in tropical countries. Evolution of the chemical composition at four different growth stages

The nutrients and the total carotenoids of samples of Clitoria rernatea L. hay harvested at four different stages of growth were analysed. Yields were also estimated. The results were: protein (N × 6.25), 23–19%; crude fibre, 29–38%; ether extract, 4.4–3.4%; Ash, 9–7%; neutral detergent fibre (NDF), 42–54%; acid detergent fibre (ADF), 38–47%; permanganate lignin, 14–16%; cellulose, 21–29%. Moreover, after being stored for 6 months, the samples have a carotenoids content of 587–400 mg kg^?1. All data refer to DM content. First year results reveal that the forage plant can give high annual yields of hay, (18–29 t ha^?1) with good palatability, readily accepted by cattle. In certain warm areas with low rainfall it could replace lucerne (alfalfa) Medicago sativa L.     

Isolation of grass cell walls as neutral detergent fibre increases their fermentability for rumen micro‐organisms

Cell wall isolated from grasses as neutral detergent fibre (NDF) is fermented more readily than cell wall in the unfractionated forage by rumen organisms in vitro. In several experiments with Heteropogon contortus and Astrebla squarrosa the NDF digestibility at 48 h for the isolated cell wall was 8–18 units higher than for the unfractionated forage, with most of the difference appearing in the first 24 h of fermentation. Similar in vitro increases were obtained for Sorghum sp, wheat hay, bagasse and Lolium perenne and less so for Panicum maximum. The difference was not significant for Chloris gayana, nor for the tropical legumes Stylosanthes hamata, Clitoria ternatea and Lablab purpureus. For those grasses in which the above effect was statistically significant there was a significant relationship between NDF content of the unfractionated grass (x) and the ratio of NDF digestibility of isolated NDF to that of the unfractionated grass, as described by y=0.018x (P<0.01). For H contortus, kinetic analysis of gas produced from 0 to 48 h of in vitro incubation with rumen microbes showed an increased (from 0.016 to 0.020 h ⁻¹, P<0.001) rate of production from the slowly‐digested pool. Spear grass NDF incubated in the rumen in polyester bags had a higher NDF loss than unfractionated forage between 9 and 24 h and the difference was maintained after 24 h. Treatments in which amorphous silica was precipitated within NDF or leached from a grass substrate indicated that the enhanced rate in grasses was not due to removal of biogenic silica by the neutral detergent treatment. © 1999 Society of Chemical Industry     

Predicting dry matter digestibility from acid detergent fibre levels in grasses as affected by a pretreatment with neutral detergent

Acid detergent fibre was determined on 50 grass samples of known in vivo dry matter digestibility with and without a preliminary extraction with neutral detergent. Pretreatment with neutral detergent reduced the mean yield of acid detergent fibre from 41.5 to 36.8%. This decrease in acid detergent fibre was mainly due to a reduction in the level of ash which accounted for 57% of the difference in fibre level. The error in predicting dry matter digestibility of all feeds from acid detergent fibre was ±3.5 digestibility units and was increased to ±3.8 units following neutral detergent pretreatment. When acid detergent fibre was expressed on an ash-free basis the corresponding residual standard deviations were ±4.4 and ±4.5 units, respectively. It was concluded that a pretreatment with neutral detergent or expressing results on an ash-free basis did not improve the accuracy in predicting dry matter digestibility from acid detergent fibre.     

Evaluation of Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus sajor-caju nutritional characteristics when cultivated in different lignocellulosic wastes

Fungi of Pleurotus genus present a high content of proteins and vitamins and low content of fat. Based on these facts, this work aimed to evaluate some nutritional characteristics of fruiting bodies of Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus sajor-caju after the first harvest, using rice straw and banana straw as substrates. Both species presented a higher content of ash in the rice straw substrate (5.86% average) than in the banana straw (5.36%). P. sajor-caju CCB 019 showed higher moisture and fibre content when cultivated in rice straw (88.08% and 9.60%, respectively) than in banana straw (83.17% and 7.60%, respectively). The other parameters were not influenced by the cultivation substrate. The protein content (from 1.54% to 3.10%) of Pleurotus fresh fruiting bodies proved to be similar to, or even higher than, the values observed in various vegetables but lower than the protein contents of eggs, meat and cheese.     

Studies of the physico-chemical properties and polyphenoloxidase activity in seeds from hybrid sunflower (Helianthus annuus) varieties grown in India

Physico-chemical properties and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activities of seven hybrid sunflower varieties commonly grown in Punjab state of India were studied. Seeds were studied for variations in physico-chemical properties, 100 kernel weight, density, bulk density, moisture, hull, oil, protein and ash content; expelled cake was studied for moisture, oil, crude fibre, ash and protein content and expelled-defatted cake for acid detergent fibre, lignin, moisture, ash and protein contents. PPO activity in all varieties, determined using pyrogallol as substrate at pH 6.5, varied between 0.212 and 0.294 Ab/min/mg protein. The PPO enzyme activity for MSFH-8 and Mega-363 was observed to be maximum at 55 and 60°C, respectively. The enzyme showed a K_m value between 1.01 and 1.968 mM for pyrogallol and V_max value between 0.21 and 2.0 Ab/min. ©     

Chemical and in vivo evaluation of a brown midrib mutant of Zea mays. I. Fibre, lignin and amino acid composition and digestibility for sheep

Two types of corn (maize) were used which were genetically identical except for a mutant gene (bm₁) in one which reduced the type and amount of lignin produced compared with the normal plant (Tr). The Tr plant appeared to have only slightly lower digestibilities of dry matter and fibre for sheep even though the protein contents of the cornstalks, normally less in the Tr, were equalised by supplementation with soya bean protein. Comparing the acid-detergent method of fibre and lignin determination with an acid-pepsin method revealed that the former method gave values considerably lower than the latter. The alkali—lignin contents of the bm₁ were higher than the acid—detergent lignins which must under-estimate the true lignin content. The acid—pepsin method gave fibre and lignin concentrations which were more closely correlated with rumen digestion of the diets as shown by dry matter loss of the diets suspended into the rumen in nylon bags. This technique also revealed there was a significant increase in the rate of rumen digestion after 69 to 74 h of incubation. Digestion of lignin on the Tr diet could be explained by loss of ferulic and p-coumaric acids. The reduced lignin and p-coumaric acid content of the bm corn was associated in young plants with a low phenylalanine content but normal tyrosine content suggesting that the genetic block in lignin synthesis in this plant may occur between prephenic acid and phenylalanine.     

Effects of ripening and parching on the quality characteristics,the chemical composition and the nutritive value of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L)

Physical properties and various chemical constituents of chickpea seeds were determined before and after ripening (malana and dry seeds of Giza 1 cultivar) and before and after parching (dry and parched seeds of Giza 2 cultivar). The raw dry seeds of Giza 2 were much smaller, lighter in mass and higher in seed coat percentage than those of Giza 1. Malana (green seeds at physiological maturity) seeds were large and uniform in size; they became smaller with much variation in seed size upon ripening. Parching significantly reduced the seed mass, but increased the seed volume. Marked differences in the chemical composition of the raw dry seeds were observed between the two cultivars which were grown under different environmental conditions. Ripening resulted in significant decreases in crude protein and polyphenol content but significant increases in nonreducing sugars, raffinose, neutral detergent fibre (NDF), add detergent fibre, cellulose, and phytic acid content. A considerable increase in Ca and Cu, a significant increase in in-vitro protein digestibility, but significant reductions in NDF, trypsin inhibitor activity and phytic acid content occurred upon parching.     

In vitro degradability of three forages: fermentation kinetics and gas production of NDF and neutral detergent‐soluble fraction of forages

The fermentation of the neutral detergent‐soluble (NDS) fraction of three forages (alfalfa hay, Italian ryegrass + oats hay and corn silage) was measured using a curve subtraction technique with in vitro gas production data from the whole forage (WF) and the isolated neutral detergent fibre (NDF). NDF disappearance and volatile fatty acid (VFA) production were determined. There was no significant difference between the VFA patterns from the whole forage and the isolated NDF. There were significant (P < 0.001) linear correlations between the volume of gas and moles of VFA produced and the mass of fibre digested in the NDF samples. Using the monophasic curve model, maximum gas production rates (R_M) for the whole forages and the isolated NDF and NDS fractions can be calculated. For all three forages we obtained R_M‐NDS > R_M‐WF > R_M‐NDF. Trends in the rates of gas and VFA production were similar in the whole forages. The NDF showed a high superimposition between substrate degradability and VFA production. Our experiment confirmed the curve subtraction technique as a simple method to obtain information on the size and digestion kinetics of the NDS fraction, which helps in understanding the nutritional significance of this important fraction of the forages studied. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) on carbohydrate content of chickpea,green gram and pigeon pea

Effect of Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) infestation was seen on the carbohydrate and dietary fibre content of chickpea, green gram and pigeon pea at 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 per cent levels of infestation. With increase in level of infestation energy, starch, total sugars and non-reducing sugars decreased, whereas significant increase in the reducing sugars, crude fibre, neutral detergent fibre, acid detergent fibre, hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin was observed.     

Lignin in the ‘cell contents’ fraction of tropical forages

In several tropical forage species the neutral detergent extraction used to determine cell wall and cell contents fractions solubilised a substantial UV‐absorbing polymeric fraction which appeared to be a soluble lignin–carbohydrate complex. A crude product was isolated from spear grass (Heteropogon contortus) with a yield of 30 g kg^?1. In other forages an acetyl bromide method was used to estimate lignin extractable by neutral detergent. For eight species of tropical grasses this gave the following values: Aristida calcyna, 38; Mitchell grass (Astrebla squarrosa), 37; Chloris gayana, 31; Eragrostis sp, 37; spear grass, 49; Iseilema membranaceum, 35; Panicum maximum, 36; Sorghum sp, 42; Themeda triandra, 79 g kg^?1. The levels in two legumes were: Alysicarpus bupleurifolius, 29; Macroptilium atropurpureum, 27 g kg^?1 dry matter. Sequential extractions on spear grass and Mitchell grass showed that most of the 50% dioxan‐soluble fraction was also soluble in neutral detergent, raising the possibility that ‘dioxan lignin’, on which studies of forage lignin structure in other species have been conducted, would be found in the cell contents fraction rather than in the fibre fractions on which lignin analyses have been performed. Addition of dioxan extractives reduced the in vitro neutral detergent fibre (NDF) digestibility of spear grass and Mitchell grass. © 2002 Society of Chemical Industry     

The effect of feeding pods of multipurpose trees (MPTs) on the degradability of dry matter and cell wall constituents of maize stover and alfalfa incubated in the rumen of sheep

This study evaluated the effects of feeding alfalfa and pods of tree legumes on rumen pH and ammonia concentration as well as in sacco degradability of dry matter and fibre constituents of maize stover, alfalfa hay and their neutral detergent extracts. The feeds were incubated in the rumens of five South African Merino sheep fed individually in an incomplete (5 × 4) Latin square design using five diets. The diets comprised equal proportions of pasture hay and either alfalfa (Alfalfa diet) or pods of Acacia sieberiana (Sieberiana diet), Acacia nilotica (Nilotica diet) or Leucaena leucocephala (Leucaena diet). The fifth diet was composed of pasture hay alone (Hay diet) and served as a negative control. Supplementation of hay with either legume pods or alfalfa significantly (p < 0.05) increased rumen ammonia concentration from 56 to a maximum of 86 mg l^?1. The pH of the rumen fluid ranged between 6.2 and 6.5 for all diets, but variations in pH were not significant. Diet did not affect (p > 0.05) the degradability constants lag time (LT), slowly degradable fraction (B), potential degradability (PD), effective degradability (ED) and rate of degradation (C) of dry matter (DM) but significantly (p < 0.01) affected ED of the fibre constituents of the incubated feeds. The effective degradabilities of the incubated feeds differed (p < 0.001), with alfalfa and maize stover having average values of 555 and 318 g kg^?1 DM respectively. The rate of degradation of alfalfa was also higher (p < 0.01) than that of maize stover. Neutral detergent extraction improved ED of the cell wall constituents of maize stover but produced the opposite effect for alfalfa. The interactions between incubation feed and extract were significant (p < 0.01) for ED and C of neutral detergent fibre and hemicellulose. The observations show that pods from tree legumes are comparable to alfalfa in the provision of rumen ammonia but limit microbial activity in the degradability of fibre constituents. They also show that maize stover and alfalfa differ in their degradabilities and that the differences may be attributed to their cell wall chemistry. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

Relationship of cell wall composition to in vitro cell wall digestibility of maize inbred line stems

The phenolic equipment of maize stem tissues was investigated in relation to the feeding value of the detergent fibre components. Sixteen maize inbred lines, including three brown‐midrib 3 mutants and their normal counterparts, were selected for highly divergent in vitro cell wall digestibility. These lines were grown during two years. Maize stems were analysed for detergent fibre concentration, esterified and etherified p‐hydroxycinnamic acids, lignin content and structure and in vitro digestibility. A large genotypic variation was found for neutral detergent fibre, cell wall phenolic composition and cell wall digestibility. Within the normal maize lines the in vitro neutral detergent fibre digestibility (IVNDFD) of stem fractions was negatively correlated with their Klason lignin content. A multiple regression model based on esterified p‐coumaric acid and lignin composition as two explanatory variates accounted for 58% of the IVNDFD variation. In this study, three normal maize inbred lines displaying a lignin content and a cell wall digestibility level close to those observed in the three bm3 lines could be detected, which opens up new breeding avenues. © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry     

Short communication: effects of replacing part of corn silage and alfalfa hay with Leymus chinensis hay on milk production and composition

The objective of this research was to investigate the effects of replacing part of corn silage (CS) and alfalfa hay (AH) with Leymus chinensis hay on milk production and composition. Twenty multiparous Holstein dairy cows were used in a randomized block design for a 14-week period and 2 treatments. Treatments were (dry matter basis): (1) Non-Leymus chinensis hay diet (NLC; 35% CS, 15% AH) and (2) added Leymus chinensis hay diet (ALC; 30% CS, 10% AH, 10% Leymus chinensis hay). Adding Leymus chinensis hay increased neutral detergent fiber content and in vitro digestibility of the diet. Cows receiving the ALC diet had higher dry matter intake, milk yield, milk protein yield, lactose yield, solids-not-fat yield, and milk fat content compared with those fed the NLC diet. Somatic cell counts of cows decreased in the ALC compared with the NLC treatment. Cis-11 18:1 and 18:2 contents in milk increased, whereas trans-9 and cis-9 18:1 fatty acid contents decreased. Trans-9, cis-11 conjugated linoleic acid content was not influenced by adding Leymus chinensis hay to the diet. Leymus chinensis hay can be used to replace part of CS and AH in diets of dairy cows to get higher milk yield and good milk quality.     

Milk fat globule size,phospholipid contents and composition of milk from purebred and Alpine-crossbred Mid-Eastern goats under confinement or grazing condition

Milk fat globule (MFG) size and phospholipids (PL) content and composition were determined in milk collected at 65 (pretreatment), 110, 135 and 170 days of lactation from goats randomly assigned to grazing in Mediterranean brushland or fed clover hay indoors, in addition to concentrate. Daily feed intake and dietary contents of neutral detergent fibre and acid detergent fibre were higher in grazing goats, associated with milk richer in fat, with larger MFGs and 20% higher PL content. Smaller MFGs, produced by all confinement groups, was associated with 15 μg g⁻¹ fat higher milk PL content. The greatest effect was found in the Damascus goats, with over 44% higher PL concentration, on milk fat basis, in the confined compared with grazing group. Our understanding of how PL content is modulated by the interaction between genetic background and nutrition will enable to achieve either PL-rich milk or PL-enriched milk fat.     

Effect of cultivar and environment on physicochemical and cooking characteristics of field pea (Pisum sativum)

The effects of cultivar, growing location and year on physicochemical and cooking characteristics of field pea (Pisum sativum) were investigated and the relationship between these characteristics was determined. Six diverse field pea cultivars were grown in five different growing locations for two subsequent years (2006 and 2007). Cultivar, location and year had a significant effect on the seed weight, seed size, water hydration capacity, cooking time and firmness of cooked peas. Significant cultivar and location differences in protein, starch, crude fibre, fat, ash and phytic acid contents of peas were observed. Most of the traits were significantly affected by the interactions: cultivar-by-location, cultivar-by-year and location-by-year. Both seed weight and seed size were negatively correlated with crude protein and crude fibre contents. Cooking time was negatively correlated with crude fibre, ash and phytic acid contents, but positively correlated with firmness and starch content. A significant positive correlation was observed between ash content and phytic acid level in peas.     

Yield and composition of cell wall residues isolated from various feedstuffs used for non-ruminant farm animals

The contents of cell wall residue were measured in 14 common feedstuffs used for non-ruminant farm animals by utilising a technique involving pronase and α-amylase treatments. Comparison with the contents of neutral detergent fibre (NDF) revealed that the NDF procedure underestimated cell wall contents in the dicotyledonous plant materials. The losses of cell wall material due to the neutral detergent solution were correlated (r=0.931, P<0.01) with the amount of pectic substances present in the cell wall residues of the dicotyledonous plant materials. Cell wall residues were analysed for starch, crude protein, polysaccharides, condensed tannins, sulphuric acid lignin, acetyl bromide lignin, and ash. Condensed tannins in the cell wall residues of sorghum, rapeseed meal and field bean resulted in a large protein contamination (11.3–26.6%) of these residues and to an overestimation of their lignin content. Compositions of polysaccharides are discussed from chemical and nutritonal viewpoints.     

Effects of harvest date, wilting and inoculation on yield and forage quality of ensiling safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) biomass

BACKGROUND: Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), usually grown as a source of oil crop, can be used as fodder either for hay or ensiling purposes, particularly in semi‐arid regions. RESULTS: A 2‐year trial was conducted in southern Italy to evaluate the production and forage quality of safflower biomass cv. Centennial, harvested at three different stages: 1, at complete appearance of primary buds (PB); 2, at complete appearance of secondary and tertiary buds (STB); and 3, at 25% of flowering stage (FS). For each stage of growth, 50% of the biomass was ensiled in 4 L glass jars without and with inoculation (Lactobacillus plantarum, LAB), and the other 50% was field wilted for 24 h before ensiling. Dry matter (DM) content and yield (DMY), pH, buffering capacity (BC) and water soluble carbohydrates (WSC) were determined on fresh forage. On safflower silages were also evaluated ammonia‐N, crude protein (CP), fibre fractions, fat, lactic and acetic acids, Ca and P, and gas losses. DMY ranged from 4.5 t ha^?1 (PB harvesting) to 11.6 t ha^?1 (FS harvesting). DM content varied from 129 g kg^?1 (PB not wilted) to 630 g kg^?1 (FS wilted). The WSC in forage before ensiling with not wilting ranged from 128 (PB stage) to 105 and 100 g kg^?1 DM at STB and FS stages, respectively. The wilted safflower forage showed a lower WSC compared to wilted forage. The high sugar substrate allowed lactic acid fermentation and a good conservation quality in all the harvesting stages. Silages quality was strongly influenced by the treatment performed. Wilting practice increased DM, pH and NDF contents but reduced lactic acid, acetic acid and NH₃‐N values. Inoculation reduced DM, pH and NDF contents, but increased lactic and acetic acids, CP and ash. CONCLUSION: As result, wilting the forage for 1 day was very effective in the early harvesting stage because this practice significantly increased DM, reducing on the same time the intensive fermentation and proteolysis processes of silage. When harvesting is performed at the beginning of the flowering stage wilting is not necessary. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry