Non-uniform agglomerate cathode catalyst layer model on the performance of PEMFC with consideration of water effect

We focus on the effect of cathode catalyst layer physical structure on the cell performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). At low polarization, high inlet humidification predicts better cell performance because of the more active surface in the CL. As polarization is extended near the mass transfer limited regime, high humidification only renders a flooded electrode and inferior cell performance. Catalyst layer with better capillary water transport parameters performs better than that with inferior water repulsion capability. Permeation in the gas diffusion layer (GDL) is important for efficient oxygen diffusion in mass transfer influenced regime. On the other hand, the permeability in catalyst layer only has secondary effect.The distribution of material properties in the CL is studied for the MEA fabrication strategy. The CL is divided into three sub-layers with changing material properties. With water effect considered, better performance is obtained for higher porosity near the GDL, higher electrolyte fraction in the agglomerate near the membrane. The effect of agglomerate particle size differs in the ohmic and mass transfer controlled regimes. Larger agglomerate size near GDL is preferred in the ohmic limited regime, while smaller size near GDL performs better if operated at mass transfer controlled regime.     

Development of a novel hydrophobic/hydrophilic double micro porous layer for use in a cathode gas diffusion layer in PEMFC

In this study, a gas diffusion layer (GDL) was modified to improve the water management ability of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). We developed a novel hydrophobic/hydrophilic double micro porous layer (MPL) that was coated on a gas diffusion backing layer (GDBL). The water management properties, vapor and water permeability, of the GDL were measured and the performance of single cells was evaluated under two different humidification conditions, R.H. 100% and 50%. The modified GDL, which contained a hydrophilic MPL in the middle of the GDL and a hydrophobic MPL on the surface, performed better than the conventional GDL, which contained only a single hydrophobic MPL, regardless of humidity, where the performance of the single cell was significantly improved under the low humidification condition. The hydrophilic MPL, which was in the middle of the modified GDL, was shown to act as an internal humidifier due to its water absorption ability as assessed by measuring the vapor and water permeability of this layer.     

Single-walled carbon nanotube interlayer modified gas diffusion layers to boost the cell performance of self-humidifying proton exchange membrane fuel cells

A tradeoff between the low humidity and the high performance remains a key challenge for the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). In this work, a novel self-humidifying gas diffusion layer (GDL) with a single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) nonwoven layer between the gas diffusion substrate and the hydrophobic microporous layer is controllably prepared to elevate the cell performance under dry conditions. The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) with 0.25 mg cm⁻² SWCNT loading exhibits a current density of 0.69 A cm⁻² at 0.6 V, which is 392.8% higher than that of the counterpart without the SWCNT interlayer at the same relative humidity. Moreover, the SWCNT interlayer with rational pore structure and proper wettability dramatically improves the water retention capacity of MEA, thus enhancing the low-humidity performance of MEA. The structure design of GDL provides an effective strategy for self-humidifying PEMFC control optimization.     

Anode water removal and cathode gas diffusion layer flooding in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell

Anode water removal (AWR) is studied as a diagnostic tool to assess cathode gas diffusion layer (GDL) flooding in PEM fuel cells. This method uses a dry hydrogen stream to remove product water from the cathode, showing ideal fuel cell performance in the absence of GDL mass transfer limitations related to water. When cathode GDL flooding is limiting, the cell voltage increases as the hydrogen stoichiometry is increased. Several cathode GDLs were studied to determine the effect of microporous layer (MPL) and PTFE coating. The largest voltage gains occur with the use of cathode GDLs without an MPL since these GDLs are prone to higher liquid water saturation. Multiple GDLs are studied on the cathode side to exacerbate GDL flooding conditions to further confirm the mechanism of the AWR process. Increased temperature and lower cathode RH allow for greater overall water removal so the voltage improvement occurs faster, though this leads to quicker membrane dehydration.     

Reactants flow behavior and water management for different current densities in PEMFC

Computational fluid dynamics analysis was carried out to investigate the reactants flow behavior and water management for proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). A complete three-dimensional model was chosen for single straight channel geometry considering both anode and cathode humidification. Phase transformation was included in the model to predict the water vapor and liquid water distributions and the overall performance of the cell for different current densities. The simulated results showed that for fully humidified conditions hydrogen mole fraction increases along the anode channel with increasing current density, however, at higher current densities it decreases monotonically. Different anode and cathode humidified conditions results showed that the cell performance was sufficiently influenced by anode humidification. The reactants and water distribution and membrane conductivity in the cell depended on anode humidification and the related water management. The cathode channel–GDL (Gas Diffusion Layer) interface experiences higher temperature and reduces the liquid water formation at the cathode channel. Indeed, at higher current densities the water accumulated in the shoulder area and exposed higher local current density than the channel area. Higher anode with lower cathode humidified combination showed that the cell had best performance based on water and thermal management and caused higher velocity in the cathode channel. The model was validated through the available literature.     

Simulation on water transportation in gas diffusion layer of a PEM fuel cell: Influence of non-uniform PTFE distribution

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are promising clean power sources with high energy conversion efficiency, fast startup, and no pollutant emission. The generated water in the cathode can cause water flooding of the catalyst layer (CL), which in turn can significantly decrease the fuel cell performance. To address this significant issue of PEMFC, a new gas diffusion layer (GDL) with non-uniform distribution of PTFE is proposed for water removal from the CL. The feasibility of this new GDL design is numerically evaluated by a Lattice-Boltzmann Method (LBM)-based two-phase flow model. The porous structure of the new GDL design is numerically reconstructed, followed by LBM simulations of the water transport in GDL. Three types of different wetting conditions are considered. It is found that liquid water transported 7.87% more with a single row of wetted solids and 13.36% more with two rows of wetted solids. The results clearly demonstrate that the liquid water can be effectively removed from the GDL by proper arrangement of hydrophilic solids in the GDL.     

Design of low-humidification PEMFC by using cell simulator and its power generation verification test

As long as the perfluorinated proton exchange membrane (PEM) is used for the electrolyte, both the cell performance and life are highly dependent upon the water content in the electrolyte. On the other hand, pre-humidification of fuel and oxidant gases complicates the PEMFC system and prevents it from possible cost reduction measures. In this study, in order to maintain a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) with a satisfactory water content by only the water produced in catalyst layer through the electrode reaction without prior humidification of both the fuel and oxidant gases, a novel gas diffusion layer (GDL) was fabricated. This was achieved by coating a water management layer (WML) onto a traditional GDL in order to place the WML between the traditional GDL and the catalyst layer of the PEMFC. This study describes the significant balance of water with WML in the fuel cell using both simulation and experimental analysis.     

Effect of catalyst layer with zeolite on the performance of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell operated under low-humidity conditions

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) employ a proton conductive membrane as the separator to transport a hydrogen proton from the anode to the cathode. The membrane's proton conductivity depends on the water content in the membrane, which is affected by the operating conditions. A membrane electrode assembly (MEA) that can self-sustain water is the key component for developing a light-weight and compact PEMFC system without humidifiers. Hence, zeolite is employed to the anode catalyst layer in this study. The effect of the gas diffusion layer (GDL) materials, catalyst loading, binder loading, and zeolite loading on the MEA performance is investigated. The MEA durability is also investigated through the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) method. The results suggest that the MEA with the SGL28BCE carbon paper, Pt loadings of 0.1 and 0.7 mg cm^?2 in the anode and cathode, respectively, Nafion-to-carbon weight ratio of 0.5, and zeolite-to-carbon weight ratio of 0.3 showed the best performance when the cell temperature is 60 °C and supplies with dry hydrogen and air from the environment. According to the impedance variation measured by EIS, the MEA with zeolite in the anode catalyst layer shows higher and more stable performance than those without zeolite.     

Numerical simulation of exchange membrane fuel cells in different operating conditions

A two-dimensional, steady state model for proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is presented. The model is used to describe the effect operation conditions (current density, pressure and water content) on the water transport, ohmic resistance and water distribution in the membrane and performance of PEMFC. This model considers the transport of species and water along the porous media: gas diffusion layers (GDL) anode and cathode, and the membrane of PEMFC fuel cell.     

Effects of electrode wettabilities on liquid water behaviours in PEM fuel cell cathode

Liquid water transport is one of the key challenges for water management in a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell. Investigation of the air–water flow patterns inside fuel cell gas flow channels with gas diffusion layer (GDL) would provide valuable information that could be used in fuel cell design and optimization. This paper presents numerical investigations of air–water flow across an innovative GDL with catalyst layer and serpentine channel on PEM fuel cell cathode by use of a commercial Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software package FLUENT. Different static contact angles (hydrophilic or hydrophobic) were applied to the electrode (GDL and catalyst layer). The results showed that different wettabilities of cathode electrode could affect liquid water flow patterns significantly, thus influencing on the performance of PEM fuel cells. The detailed flow patterns of liquid water were shown, several gas flow problems were observed, and some useful suggestions were given through investigating the flow patterns.     

外界供给参数对PEMFC输出性能及水热平衡的影响

为了改善质子交换膜燃料电池(PEMFC)内部的水热平衡,从而进一步改善PEMFC的输出性能,文章建立了PEMFC的三维模型,通过改变PEMFC的外界供给参数(进气速度、加湿率以及冷却水流速),应用COMSOL模拟仿真得到了PEMFC的极化曲线和功率曲线、流道和气体扩散层(GDL)的水浓度分布情况,以及冷却水流速对PEMFC温度的影响。研究结果表明:随着进气速度和加湿率的逐渐增加,PEMFC的输出性能均逐渐提升,但是,过高的加湿率可能导致电极水淹;随着冷却水流速的增加,PEMFC温度加速下降,膜内温度分布变得更均匀。     

A numerical study on the performance of PEMFC with wedge-shaped fins in the cathode channel

The gas flow field design has a significant influence on the overall performance of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). A single-channel PEMFC with wedge-shaped fins in the cathode channel was proposed, and the effects of fin parameters such as volume (0.5 mm³, 1.0 mm³, and 1.5 mm³), number (3, 5, and 9), and porosity of the gas diffusion layer (GDL) (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8) on the performance of PEMFC were numerically examined based on the growth rate of power density (GRPD) and polarization curve. It was shown that wedge-shaped fins could effectively improve the PEMFC performance. With an increase in fin volume, the distributions of oxygen mass fraction in the outlet area of the cathode channel were lower, the drainage effect of the PEMFC improved, and GRPD also increased accordingly. Similar results were obtained as the number of fins increased. The GDL porosity had a greater effect than the wedge-shaped fins on the improvement in PEMFC performance, but the influence of GDL porosity weakened and the GRPD of porosity decreased as the porosity increased. This study provides an effective guideline for the optimization of the cathode channel in a PEMFC.     

Along‐channel flooding prediction of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells

Non‐uniform current distribution in polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells results in local over‐heating, accelerated ageing, and lower power output than expected. This issue is quite critical when a fuel cell experiences water flooding. In this study, the performance of a PEM fuel cell is investigated under cathode flooding conditions. A two‐dimensional approach is proposed for a single PEM fuel cell based on conservation laws and electrochemical equations to provide useful insight into water transport mechanisms and their effect on the cell performance. The model results show that inlet stoichiometry and humidification, and cell operating pressure are important factors affecting cell performance and two‐phase transport characteristics. Numerical simulations have revealed that the liquid saturation in the cathode gas distribution layer (GDL) could be as high as 20%. The presence of liquid water in the GDL decreases oxygen transport and surface coverage of active catalyst, which in turn degrades the cell performance. The thermodynamic quality in the cathode flow channel is found to be greater than 99.7%, indicating that liquid water in the cathode gas channel exists in very small amounts and does not interfere with the gas phase transport. A detailed analysis of the operating conditions shows that cell performance should be optimized based on the maximum average current density achieved and the magnitude of its dispersion from its mean value. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Designing independent water transport channels to improve water flooding in ultra-thin nanoporous film cathodes for PEMFCs

Utilization of 3D nanostructured Pt cathodes could obviously improve performances of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) owing to the reduced tortuosity and the bi-continuous nanoporous structure. However, these cathodes usually suffer from the flooding problem ascribed to the ionomer-free and nanoscale pores which are more susceptible to water condensation. In this paper, ultra-thin nanoporous metal films (100 nm) were utilized to construct PEMFC cathodes and independent transport channels were designed separately for water and gas aiming at the flooding problem. Nanoporous gold (NPG) film was used as the model support for loading Pt nanoparticles owing to its controllable and stable structure. After optimizing the polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) content and carbon loading in the gas diffusion layer (GDL), plasma treatment under O₂ atmosphere was used to pattern the GDL with independent water transport channels. The obtained liquid permeation coefficients and oxygen gains demonstrated the obviously improved water and O₂ transport. By using a home-made optimized GDL and a nanoporous film cathode with pore size ～60 nm, the flooding problem could be facilely solved. With a Pt loading of ～16 μg cm^?2, this 3D nanostructured cathode exhibits a PEMFC performance of ～957 mW cm^?2 at 80 °C. The Pt power efficiency is about 4 times higher than that of the commercial Pt/C cathode (50 μg cm^?2, 756 mW cm^?2). Obviously, this study provides a simple but effective methodology to solve the water flooding problem in the ultra-thin nanoporous film cathodes which is applicable for other types of 3D nanostructured PEMFC cathodes.     

Water transport characteristics of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell

This paper describes the performance of a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) system without humidification of the reactants which consumes a lot of parasitic power, increases the weight of the PEMFC system and thus adds complexity. Such PEMFC systems are preferable for portable applications. The results indicate that dry gas operation depends on various factors like reactant flow field design, area of the electrode and equilibration time for the product water. The performance of the fuel cell can be improved by giving some equilibration time for the product water, produced by the electrochemical reactions, to get transported across the membrane to the anode side, thus increasing the conductivity of the membrane. The water transported through the membrane across the cell was investigated by measuring the amount of product water at the anode side which allows humidification for the anode gas and less condensed water in the fluid flow channels of the cathode.     

Numerical study for in-plane gradient effects of cathode gas diffusion layer on PEMFC under low humidity condition

A numerical study about in-plane porosity and contact angle gradient effects of cathode gas diffusion layer (GDL) on polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) under low humidity condition below 50% relative humidity is performed in this work. Firstly, a numerical model for a fuel cell is developed, which considers mass transfer, electrochemical reaction, and water saturation in cathode GDL. For water saturation in cathode GDL, porosity and contact angle of GDL are also considered in developing the model. Secondly, current density distribution in PEMFC with uniform cathode GDL is scrutinized to design the gradient cathode GDL. Finally, current density distributions in PEMFC with gradient cathode GDL and uniform cathode GDL are compared. At the gas inlet side, the current density is higher in GDL with a gradient than GDL with high porosity and large contact angle. At the outlet side, the current density is higher in GDL with a gradient than GDL with low porosity and small contact angle. As a result, gradient cathode GDL increases the maximum power by 9% than GDL with low porosity and small contact angle. Moreover, gradient cathode GDL uniformizes the current density distribution by 4% than GDL with high porosity and large contact angle.     

Review on water management methods for proton exchange membrane fuel cells

Control of water content of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) within a reasonable rangeis a question worthy of study. This paper addresses questions of water transport, water fault, and water management methods in a PEMFC. Both an excess (overflow) or lack (dehydration) of water in a fuel cell may affect the performance and the service life. Herein, we describe in detail the effects of water content on the cathode, anode, gas diffusion layer (GDL), catalyst layer (CL) and flow channel. Monitoring the flow and accumulation of water directly in the PEMFC is the most effective approach to determine which of the two scenarios, overflow or dehydration, occurs. The water transport can be effectively investigated in a transparent fuel cell, using neutron scanning, nuclear magnetic resonance, and X-ray irradiation. Regarding the PEMFC water management, this paper reviews some current methods, such as improvement of the flow field structure, changing hydrophilic materials, and optimizing control systems.     

Fabrication of a carbon nanofiber sheet as a micro-porous layer for proton exchange membrane fuel cells

A carbon nanofiber sheet (CNFS) has been prepared by electrospinning, stabilisation and subsequent carbonisation processes. Imaging with scanning electron microscope (SEM) indicates that the CNFS is formed by nonwoven nanofibers with diameters between 400 and 700 nm. The CNFS, with its three-dimensional pores, shows excellent electrical conductivity and hydrophobicity. In addition, it is found that the CNFS can be successfully applied as a micro-porous layer (MPL) in the cathode gas diffusion layer (GDL) of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). The GDL with the CNFS as a MPL has higher gas permeability than a conventional GDL. Moreover, the resultant cathode GDL exhibits excellent fuel cell performance with a higher peak power density than that of a cathode GDL fabricated with a conventional MPL under the same test condition.     

Effect of water distribution in gas diffusion layer on proton exchange membrane fuel cell performance

Water management of proton exchange membrane fuel cells remains a prominent issue in research concerning fuel cells. In this study, the gas diffusion layer (GDL) of a fuel cell is partially treated with a hydrophobic agent, and the effect of GDL hydrophobicity on the water distribution in the fuel cell is examined. First, the effect of the position of the cathode GDL hydrophobic area relative to the channel on the fuel cell performance is investigated. Then, the water distribution in the fuel cell cathode GDL is observed using X-ray imaging. The experimental results indicate that when the hybrid GDL's hydrophobic area lies on the channel, water tends to accumulate under the rib, and the water content in the channel is low; this improves the fuel cell performance. When the hydrophobic area is under the rib, the water distribution is more uniform, but the performance deteriorates.     

Enhancing liquid water transport by laser perforation of a GDL in a PEM fuel cell

The presence of liquid water in a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell hinders gas diffusion to the active sites, which results in large concentration overpotentials and instability of the fuel cell performance. In this paper, a new customized gas diffusion layer (GDL) is presented that enhances liquid water transport from the electrode to the gas channels and therefore lowers mass transport losses of oxygen through the porous media. The GDL is systematically modified by laser-perforation with respect to the flow field design. The holes are characterized by SEM images. The performance of the laser-treated GDL was investigated in a small test fuel cell with a reference electrode by voltammetry and chronoamperometry measurements and compared to corresponding data with a non-modified GDL. Voltammetry experiments with different humidification levels of the inlet gases were conducted. In all cases, the cathode overpotential with the perforated GDL clearly shows reduced saturation which can be seen in a lower overpotential in the region limited by mass transport resulting in a higher limiting current density. The investigated current response of the chronoamperometry measurements clearly shows a better dynamic and overall performance of the test cell with the perforated GDL.