Measuring search efficiency in complex visual search tasks: Global and local clutter.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 17(2) of Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied (see record 2011-11863-002). The copyright for the article was incorrectly listed. The copyright is in the correction.] Set size and crowding affect search efficiency by limiting attention for recognition and attention against competition; however, these factors can be difficult to quantify in complex search tasks. The current experiments use a quantitative measure of the amount and variability of visual information (i.e., clutter) in highly complex stimuli (i.e., digital aeronautical charts) to examine limits of attention in visual search. Undergraduates at a large southern university searched for a target among 4, 8, or 16 distractors in charts with high, medium, or low global clutter. The target was in a high or low local-clutter region of the chart. In Experiment 1, reaction time increased as global clutter increased, particularly when the target was in a high local-clutter region. However, there was no effect of distractor set size, supporting the notion that global clutter is a better measure of attention against competition in complex visual search tasks. As a control, Experiment 2 demonstrated that increasing the number of distractors leads to a typical set size effect when there is no additional clutter (i.e., no chart). In Experiment 3, the effects of global and local clutter were minimized when the target was highly salient. When the target was nonsalient, more fixations were observed in high global clutter charts, indicating that the number of elements competing with the target for attention was also high. The results suggest design techniques that could improve pilots' search performance in aeronautical charts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

"School readiness and later achievement": Correction to Duncan et al. (2007).

Reports an error in "School readiness and later achievement" by Greg J. Duncan, Chantelle J. Dowsett, Amy Claessens, Katherine Magnuson, Aletha C. Huston, Pamela Klebanov, Linda S. Pagani, Leon Feinstein, Mimi Engel, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Holly Sexton, Kathryn Duckworth and Crista Japel (Developmental Psychology, 2007[Nov], Vol 43[6], 1428-1446). The DOI for the supplemental materials was printed incorrectly. The correct DOI is as follows: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1428.supp. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2007-16709-012.) Using 6 longitudinal data sets, the authors estimate links between three key elements of school readiness--school-entry academic, attention, and socioemotional skills--and later school reading and math achievement. In an effort to isolate the effects of these school-entry skills, the authors ensured that most of their regression models control for cognitive, attention, and socioemotional skills measured prior to school entry, as well as a host of family background measures. Across all 6 studies, the strongest predictors of later achievement are school-entry math, reading, and attention skills. A meta-analysis of the results shows that early math skills have the greatest predictive power, followed by reading and then attention skills. By contrast, measures of socioemotional behaviors, including internalizing and externalizing problems and social skills, were generally insignificant predictors of later academic performance, even among children with relatively high levels of problem behavior. Patterns of association were similar for boys and girls and for children from high and low socioeconomic backgrounds. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Berry et al. (2010).

Reports an error in "Can “pure” implicit memory be isolated? A test of a single-system model of recognition and repetition priming" by Christopher J. Berry, David R. Shanks, Selina Li, Luke Sheridan Rains and Richard N. A. Henson (Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale, 2010[Dec], Vol 64[4], 241-255). In the article there was an error in Equation B2 in Appendix B. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2010-26226-002.) Implicit memory is widely regarded as an unconscious form of memory. However, evidence for what is arguably a defining characteristic of implicit memory—that its contents are not accessible to awareness—has remained elusive. Such a finding of “pure” implicit memory would constitute evidence against a single-system model of recognition and priming that predicts that priming will not occur in the (true) absence of recognition. In three experiments, using a rapid serial visual presentation procedure at encoding, we tested this prediction by attempting to replicate some previous studies that claimed to obtain pure implicit memory. We found no evidence of priming in the absence of recognition; instead, priming and recognition were associated across experiments: when priming was absent, recognition was also absent (Experiments 1 and 2), and when priming was reliably greater than chance, recognition was similarly greater than chance (Experiment 3). The results are consistent with the prediction of a single-system model, which was fit to the data from all the experiments. The results are also consistent with the notion that the memory driving priming is accessible to awareness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Michalowski et al. (2009).

Reports an error in "Brain dynamics in spider-phobic individuals exposed to phobia-relevant and other emotional stimuli" by Jaroslaw M. Michalowski, Christiane A. Melzig, Almut I. Weike, Jessica Stockburger, Harald T. Schupp and Alfons O. Hamm (Emotion, 2009[Jun], Vol 9[3], 306-315). This article contained an incorrect DOI for the supplemental materials. The correct DOI is as follows: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0015550.supp. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2009-07991-002.) Dense sensor event-related brain potentials were measured in participants with spider phobia and nonfearful controls during viewing of phobia-relevant spider and standard emotional (pleasant, unpleasant, neutral) pictures. Irrespective of the picture content, spider phobia participants responded with larger P1 amplitudes than controls, suggesting increased vigilance in this group. Furthermore, spider phobia participants showed a significantly enlarged early posterior negativity (EPN) and late positive potential (LPP) during the encoding of phobia-relevant pictures compared to nonfearful controls. No group differences were observed for standard emotional materials indicating that these effects were specific to phobia-relevant material. Within group comparisons of the spider phobia group, though, revealed comparable EPN and LPP evoked by spider pictures and emotional (unpleasant and pleasant) picture contents. These results demonstrate a temporal unfolding in perceptual processing from unspecific vigilance (P1) to preferential responding (EPN and LPP) to phobia-relevant materials in the spider phobia group. However, at the level of early stimulus processing, these effects of increased attention seem to be related to emotional relevance of the stimulus cues rather than reflecting a fear-specific response. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"A clash of bottom-up and top-down processes in visual search: The reversed letter effect revisited": Correction to Zhaoping and Frith (2011).

Reports an error in "A clash of bottom-up and top-down processes in visual search: The reversed letter effect revisited" by Li Zhaoping and Uta Frith (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, np). The authors have requested a number of corrections. The corrections are given in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2011-09719-001.) It is harder to find the letter “N” among its mirror reversals than vice versa, an inconvenient finding for bottom-up saliency accounts based on primary visual cortex (V1) mechanisms. However, in line with this account, we found that in dense search arrays, gaze first landed on either target equally fast. Remarkably, after first landing, gaze often strayed away again and target report was delayed. This delay was longer for target “N” We suggest that the delay arose because bottom-up saliency clashed with top-down shape recognition. Thus, although gaze landed accurately and quickly to the distinctive feature in the target shape (the orientation of the diagonal bar in “N” or “И”), the identical zigzag shape of target and distractors was registered, leading to temporary confusion. In sparser search arrays with smaller set sizes, top-down target shape recognition occurs earlier and bottom-up saliency is weaker. The clash in this case causes search asymmetry even before target location at first gaze landing. Our findings rule out previous suggestions that search asymmetry stems from stronger preattentive salience for the reversed target and/or faster rejection of familiar distractors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Duncan et al. (2008).

Reports an error in "Goal neglect and Spearman's g: Competing parts of a complex task" by John Duncan, Alice Parr, Alexandra Woolgar, Russell Thompson, Peter Bright, Sally Cox, Sonia Bishop and Ian Nimmo-Smith (Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 2008[Feb], Vol 137[1], 131-148). The DOI for the supplemental materials was printed incorrectly. The correct DOI is as follows: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.137.1.131.supp (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2008-01081-009.) In goal neglect, a person ignores some task requirement though being able to describe it. Goal neglect is closely related to general intelligence or C. Spearman's (1904) g (J. Duncan, H. Emslie, P. Williams, R. Johnson, & C. Freer, 1996). The authors tested the role of task complexity in neglect and the hypothesis that different task components in some sense compete for attention. In contrast to many kinds of attentional limits, increasing the real-time demands of one task component does not promote neglect of another. Neither does neglect depend on preparation for different possible events in a block of trials. Instead, the key factor is complexity in the whole body of knowledge specified in task instructions. The authors suggest that as novel activity is constructed, relevant facts, rules, and requirements must be organized into a "task model." As this model increases in complexity, different task components compete for representation, and vulnerable components may be lost. Construction of effective task models is closely linked to g. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional expressions and visual search efficiency: Specificity and effects of anxiety symptoms.

Although facial expressions are thought to vary in their functional impact on perceivers, experimental demonstration of the differential effects of facial expressions on behavior are lacking. In the present study, we examined the effects of exposure to facial expressions on visual search efficiency. Participants (n = 31) searched for a target in a 12 location circle array after exposure to an angry, disgusted, fearful, happy, or neutral facial expression for 100 ms or 500 ms. Consistent with predictions, exposure to a fearful expression prior to visual search resulted in faster target identification compared to exposure to other facial expressions. The effects of other facial expressions on visual search did not differ from each other. The fear facilitating effect on visual search efficiency was observed at 500-ms but not at 100-ms presentations, suggesting a specific temporal course of the facilitation. Subsequent analysis also revealed that individual differences in fear of negative evaluation, trait anxiety, and obsessive–compulsive symptoms possess a differential pattern of association with visual search efficiency. The experimental and clinical implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Sheese et al. (2004).

Reports an error in the original article by B. Sheese et al (Health Psychology, 2004[Sep], Vol 23 [5], 457-464). On page 459, Table 1 contained errors in the reported values. The corrected table is provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 2004-18051-003.) Research has shown that writing about emotional topics can positively influence physical and mental health. The current study tested the efficacy of an e-mail-based writing treatment and shows how such an implementation can aid in the search for moderators. Participants (N = 546) were randomly assigned to either a long- or short-interval traumatic writing condition or to a nonemotional writing control condition. In contrast to previous disclosure research, participants received and submitted their writing responses via e-mail. Health outcomes were assessed weekly for 5 weeks after treatment and were reported at the conclusion of the study. Results supported the effectiveness of an e-mail-based writing treatment in producing positive health outcomes and successfully identified several moderators of the writing treatment effect. The moderators implicated varied depending on the nature of the health outcome assessment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Low target prevalence is a stubborn source of errors in visual search tasks.

In visual search tasks, observers look for targets in displays containing distractors. Likelihood that targets will be missed varies with target prevalence, the frequency with which targets are presented across trials. Miss error rates are much higher at low target prevalence (1%-2%) than at high prevalence (50%). Unfortunately, low prevalence is characteristic of important search tasks such as airport security and medical screening where miss errors are dangerous. A series of experiments show this prevalence effect is very robust. In signal detection terms, the prevalence effect can be explained as a criterion shift and not a change in sensitivity. Several efforts to induce observers to adopt a better criterion fail. However, a regime of brief retraining periods with high prevalence and full feedback allows observers to hold a good criterion during periods of low prevalence with no feedback. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Mikels et al. (2010).

Reports an error in "Following your heart or your head: Focusing on emotions versus information differentially influences the decisions of younger and older adults" by Joseph A. Mikels, Corinna E. L?ckenhoff, Sam J. Maglio, Laura L. Carstensen, Mary K. Goldstein and Alan Garber (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 2010[Mar], Vol 16[1], 87-95). The wrong author order was listed. The correct order is presented in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2010-06152-007.) Research on aging has indicated that whereas deliberative cognitive processes decline with age, emotional processes are relatively spared. To examine the implications of these divergent trajectories in the context of health care choices, we investigated whether instructional manipulations emphasizing a focus on feelings or details would have differential effects on decision quality among younger and older adults. We presented 60 younger and 60 older adults with health care choices that required them to hold in mind and consider multiple pieces of information. Instructional manipulations in the emotion-focus condition asked participants to focus on their emotional reactions to the options, report their feelings about the options, and then make a choice. In the information-focus condition, participants were instructed to focus on the specific attributes, report the details about the options, and then make a choice. In a control condition, no directives were given. Manipulation checks indicated that the instructions were successful in eliciting different modes of processing. Decision quality data indicate that younger adults performed better in the information-focus than in the control condition whereas older adults performed better in the emotion-focus and control conditions than in the information-focus condition. Findings support and extend extant theorizing on aging and decision making as well as suggest that interventions to improve decision-making quality should take the age of the decision maker into account. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Stover et al. (2010).

Reports an error in "Agreement of parent and child reports of trauma exposure and symptoms in the early aftermath of a traumatic event" by Carla Smith Stover, Hilary Hahn, Jamie J. Y. Im and Steven Berkowitz (Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 2010[Sep], Vol 2[3], 159-168). The article contained an incorrect DOI. The correct DOI is as follows: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0019156. The online version has been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2010-19144-001.) Exposure to violence and potentially traumatic events (PTEs) is a common experience among children and youth. The assessment of necessary intervention relies upon parental acknowledgment of exposure and recognition of their child's distress. Early interventions and treatment are most effective when parents are aware of the nature of the traumatic exposure, understand their child's symptomatic response, and are intimately involved in the treatment process. The present study investigated concordance between parents and exposed children on child trauma history, the subjective report of the impact of the traumas experienced, and presence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Agreement between parent and child report of traumas experienced was nonsignificant for serious accidents, separation from significant others, and physical assaults. Nonsignificant agreement was also found for avoidance and hyperarousal symptoms of PTSD. Correlations were not significant between parent and child report of the impact of traumas both at the time of the incident and at the time of the interview. Recommendations are suggested for helping parents improve their capacity to understand the potential impact of exposure on the child's psychological functioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to diamond et al. (2010).

Reports an error in "Ongoing traumatic stress response (OTSR) in Sderot, Israel" by Gary M. Diamond, Joshua D. Lipsitz, Zvi Fajerman and Omit Rozenblat (Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 2010[Feb], Vol 41[1], 19-25). In the article “Ongoing Traumatic Stress Response (OTSR) in Sderot, Israel,” by Diamond, Lipsitz, Fajerman and Rozenblat (Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 2010, Vol. 41, No. 1., pp. 19–25), due to a production error, the last author’s name was misspelled in the byline and the author note. The correct spelling is Ornit Rozenblat. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2010-02467-003.) In Sderot, a small city in southern Israel, seven years of continuous missile attacks have led to dramatic increases in treatment seeking for anxiety symptoms. For some clients, the clinical picture is consistent with a diagnosis of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). For other clients, however, the onset and constellation of symptoms are less typical of PTSD. In these cases, anxiety symptoms seem to evolve gradually and be associated with ongoing, daily stress about imminent attacks, rather than with a discrete, past traumatic event. Much of their avoidance behavior is reality based. They report hyperarousal, severe distress, and loss of control during and immediately following actual missile attacks. However, they are less likely to exhibit reexperiencing symptoms. Furthermore, in contrast to the typical presentation of PTSD, their symptoms tend to diminish dramatically or completely resolve when they are no longer within harm’s way. We suggest that this clinical presentation may be best understood as an ongoing traumatic stress response (OTSR), rather than PTSD or PTSD symptoms. We consider diagnostic features which discriminate between these two phenomena as well as implications for treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Shin et al. (2010).

Reports an error in "A review of contemporary ideomotor theory" by Yun Kyoung Shin, Robert W. Proctor and E. J. Capaldi (Psychological Bulletin, 943-974). In the Online First Publication of the article “A Review of Contemporary Ideomotor Theory” by Yun Kyoung Shin, Robert W. Proctor, and E. J. Capaldi (Psychological Bulletin, posted September 6, 2010, doi: 10.1037/a0020541), the title of the article was incorrectly listed as “A Review of Contemporary Idiomatic Theory.” All versions of this article have been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2010-18185-001.) A framework for action planning, called ideomotor theory, suggests that actions are represented by their perceivable effects. Thus, any activation of the effect image, either endogenously or exogenously, will trigger the corresponding action. We review contemporary studies relating to ideomotor theory in which researchers have investigated various manipulations of action effects and how those effects acquire discriminative control over the actions. Evidence indicates that the knowledge about the relation between response and effect is still a critical component even when other factors, such as stimulus–response or response–response relations, are controlled. When consistent tone effects are provided after responses are made, performance in serial-reaction tasks is better than when the effects are random. Methodology in which acquisition and test stages are used with choice–reaction tasks shows that an action is automatically associated with its effect bilaterally and that anticipation of the effect facilitates action. Ideomotor phenomena include stimulus–response compatibility, in which the perceptual feature of the stimulus activates its corresponding action code when the stimulus itself resembles the effect codes. For this reason, other stimulus-driven action facilitation such as ideomotor action and imitation are treated as ideomotor phenomena and are reviewed. Ideomotor theory also implies that ongoing action affects perception of concurrent events, a topic which we review briefly. Issues concerning ideomotor theory are identified and evaluated. We categorize the range of ideomotor explanations into several groups by whether intermediate steps are assumed to complete sensorimotor transformation or not and by whether a general theoretical framework or a more restricted one is provided by the account. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Castonguay et al. (2010).

Reports an error in "Psychotherapists, researchers, or both? A qualitative analysis of psychotherapists' experiences in a practice research network" by Louis G. Castonguay, Dana L. Nelson, Mary A. Boutselis, Nancy R. Chiswick, Diana D. Damer, Neal A. Hemmelstein, Jeffrey S. Jackson, Marolyn Morford, Stephen A. Ragusea, J. Gowen Roper, Catherine Spayd, Tara Weiszer and Thomas D. Borkovec (Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 2010[Sep], Vol 47[3], 345-354). The first sentence of the second paragraph of the author note on page 345 was incorrect. The corrected sentence is as follows: “The study was conducted with funding provided by the Pennsylvania Psychological Association and the Committee for the Advancement of Professional Practice of the American Psychological Association”. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2010-20923-008.) This paper describes the experiences of psychotherapists who, as part of a practice research network (PRN), collaborated with researchers in designing and conducting a psychotherapy study within their own clinical practices. A qualitative analysis of interviews conducted with these psychotherapists led to the delineation of several benefits (e.g., learning information that improved their work with clients and feeling that they were contributing to research that would be useful for psychotherapists) and difficulties for them and their clients (e.g., time and effort required to integrate research protocol into routine clinical practice) that psychotherapists associated with their participation in the PRN. Also identified were a number of strategies used by psychotherapists to address obstacles that they encountered, as well as general recommendations for future PRN studies. As a whole, the experiences of these psychotherapists are likely to provide valuable lessons for the survival and growth of what is viewed by many as a promising pathway for building a stronger bridge between practice and research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to McCartney et al. (2010).

Reports an error in "Testing a series of causal propositions relating time in child care to children’s externalizing behavior" by Kathleen McCartney, Margaret Burchinal, Aliso Clarke-Stewart, Kristen L. Bub, Margaret T. Owen and Jay Belsky (Developmental Psychology, 2010[Jan], Vol 46[1], 1-17). On the first page of the article “Testing a Series of Causal Propositions Relating Time in Child Care to Children’s Externalizing Behavior,” by Kathleen McCartney, Margaret Burchinal, Alison Clarke- Stewart, Kristen L. Bub, Margaret T. Owen, Jay Belsky, and the NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (Developmental Psychology, 2010, Vol. 46, No. 1, pp. 1–17), author Alison Clarke- Stewart’s name was misspelled as Aliso Clarke-Stewart. In addition, the e-mail address listed for the corresponding author Kathleen McCartney is incorrect. The correct e-mail address is: kathleen_mccartney@gse.harvard.edu. The online versions of this article have been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2009-24671-001.) Prior research has documented associations between hours in child care and children’s externalizing behavior. A series of longitudinal analyses were conducted to address 5 propositions, each testing the hypothesis that child care hours causes externalizing behavior. Data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development were used in this investigation because they include repeated measures of child care experiences, externalizing behavior, and family characteristics. There were 3 main findings. First, the evidence linking child care hours with externalizing behavior was equivocal in that results varied across model specifications. Second, the association between child care hours and externalizing behavior was not due to a child effect. Third, child care quality and proportion of time spent with a large group of peers moderated the effects of child care hours on externalizing behavior. The number of hours spent in child care was more strongly related to externalizing behavior when children were in low-quality child care and when children spent a greater proportion of time with a large group of peers. The magnitude of associations between child care hours and externalizing behavior was modest. Implications are that parents and policymakers must take into account that externalizing behavior is predicted from a constellation of variables in multiple contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Working memory capacity and the top-down control of visual search: Exploring the boundaries of "executive attention".

The executive attention theory of working memory capacity (WMC) proposes that measures of WMC broadly predict higher order cognitive abilities because they tap important and general attention capabilities (R. W. Engle & M. J. Kane, 2004). Previous research demonstrated WMC-related differences in attention tasks that required restraint of habitual responses or constraint of conscious focus. To further specify the executive attention construct, the present experiments sought boundary conditions of the WMC-attention relation. Three experiments correlated individual differences in WMC, as measured by complex span tasks, and executive control of visual search. In feature-absence search, conjunction search, and spatial configuration search, WMC was unrelated to search slopes, although they were large and reliably measured. Even in a search task designed to require the volitional movement of attention (J. M. Wolfe, G. A. Alvarez, & T. S. Horowitz, 2000), WMC was irrelevant to performance. Thus, WMC is not associated with all demanding or controlled attention processes, which poses problems for some general theories of WMC. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The serial process in visual search.

The conditions for serial search are described. A multiple target search methodology (Thornton & Gilden, 2007) is used to home in on the simplest target/distractor contrast that effectively mandates a serial scheduling of attentional resources. It is found that serial search is required when (a) targets and distractors are mirror twins, and (b) when the search elements lack the Gestalt property of intrinsic orientation. The finding is put into the context of Feature Integration Theory (Treisman & Gelade, 1980) that first identified the occasions of serial search to be important to object perception and understanding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Estrada-Hollenbeck et al. (2010).

Reports an error in "Toward a model of social influence that explains minority student integration into the scientific community" by Mica Estrada-Hollenbeck, Anna Woodcock, Paul R. Hernandez and P. Wesley Schultz (Journal of Educational Psychology, np). The name of the author Mica Estrada-Hollenbeck should have read Mica Estrada. All versions of this article have been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2010-22529-001.) Students from several ethnic minority groups are underrepresented in the sciences, indicating that minority students more frequently drop out of the scientific career path than nonminority students. Viewed from a perspective of social influence, this pattern suggests that minority students do not integrate into the scientific community at the same rate as nonminority students. Kelman (1958, 2006) described a tripartite integration model of social influence by which a person orients to a social system. To test whether this model predicts integration into the scientific community, we conducted analyses of data from a national panel of minority science students. A structural equation model framework showed that self-efficacy (operationalized to be consistent with Kelman's rule orientation) predicted student intentions to pursue a scientific career. However, when identification as a scientist and internalization of values were added to the model, self-efficacy became a poorer predictor of intention. Additional mediation analyses supported the conclusion that while having scientific self-efficacy is important, identifying with and endorsing the values of the social system reflect a deeper integration and more durable motivation to persist as a scientist. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)