不同层理页岩常规三轴压缩力学特性离散元模拟

页岩作为页岩气储层,在沉积过程中形成部分弱面,在力学特性上表现出各向异性特征。所以,使用离散元软件从微细观层面探讨深部页岩力学各向异性特征具有重要实践意义。基于页岩室内常规三轴压缩试验结果,采用离元程序PFC2D对常规三轴压缩下不同层理倾角页岩进行了颗粒流模拟研究,分析了层理倾角及围压对页岩力学特性的影响规律。结果表明:（1）页岩峰值强度与黏聚力随层理倾角的增加整体呈“U”形变化,但峰值强度在不同围压下的变化趋势有所区别;而内摩擦角随层理倾角的增大呈非线性变化。（2）层理倾角对页岩周围颗粒的位移方向及大小的影响随着层理面与轴向应力的夹角的增大而减小。（3）同一层理倾角试样最终破坏时的微裂纹总数随着围压的升高有所增加;同一围压下,试样最终破坏时的微裂纹数目,随着层理倾角的增加呈现先减少后增多的趋势。（4）同一层理倾角页岩的脆性随围压的增长整体呈下降趋势;低围压情况下,页岩脆性随层理倾角的增加呈两端大中间小的变化规律。      

Behavior of Ellipsoids of Two Sizes

The influence of particle shape on granular material response is examined by using the discrete element method. Triaxial drained and undrained tests were performed on specimens of ellipsoids of two sizes. The triaxial test boundary conditions were simulated with a recently developed boundary mechanism. Different loading paths including axial compression, axial extension, lateral compression, and true extension were employed. The specimens were composed of 1,170 ellipsoids having two types of particles. The specimen is made up of 50% by weight of Type I particles that have an aspect ratio of 1.2. The aspect ratio of the Type II particles varies between 1.5 and 2. The specimens were consolidated isotropically before shearing. Comparing with the behavior of specimens of mono-size particles, a higher friction angle and a more complex particle shape effect were observed. The friction angles from the drained tests (axial extension, true extension, and lateral compression tests) were similar and the values are higher than that of the axial compression test. All simulated results are in good agreement with laboratory observation of sands.     

不同受力维度下红砂岩失稳评判指标研究

为了研究不同受力维度下岩石峰值应力、峰值应变与失稳的关系,分别对红砂岩进行一维、二维、三维受力条件下的单轴抗压试验、变角板剪切试验和直接剪切试验以及三轴压缩试验。试验结果显示：单轴压缩试验中,峰值应力和峰值应变变异系数分别为6.61%和9.36%;变角板剪切试验中,峰值应力和峰值应变平均变异系数分别为5.69%和19.81%;直接剪切试验中,峰值应力和峰值应变平均变异系数分别为4.32%和14.74%;三轴压缩试验中,峰值应力和峰值应变平均变异系数分别为6.03%和7.44%。上述研究表明：当红砂岩处于一维和三维受力状态时,峰值应力和峰值应变均可以作为评判红砂岩是否失稳的指标,但峰值应力比峰值应变作为评判指标的可靠性更高;当红砂岩处于二维受力状态时,只有峰值应力能作为评判红砂岩是否失稳的指标。上述研究规律不仅对评判室内试验中岩石是否失稳具有重要意义,而且对评判岩土工程中岩石是否处于安全状态提供理论依据。     

Stabilized Dredged Material. II: Geomechanical Behavior

This study presents the results of a detailed geotechnical evaluation of six stabilized dredged material (SDM) blends incorporating various combinations of lime, cement kiln dust, high alkali and slag cements, and Class F fly ash. The dredged material classified as CH/OH soil with an in situ moisture content (MC) of approximately 130% and void ratio of 3.35. Mix designs and unconfined compression strength tests were completed for each SDM blend based on 3-day mellowing characteristics. Compacted dry densities were on the order of 7.8–11.2?kN/m3 (49–71?lb/ft3), with MCs on the order of 34–73%. Peak effective friction angles ranged from 20–50° with cohesion intercepts on the order of 30–235 kPa (4–34?lb/in.2) using a maximum stress obiliquity criterion. Postpeak effective friction angles (15% axial strain) were routinely in excess of 40° with low cohesion (<40?kPa; 6?lb/in.2). One sample exhibited very strong soil-fabric effects (cohesion) having an effective friction angle of only approximately 9°, but cohesion on the order of 450 kPa (65?lb/in.2). Negligible consolidation of a 28-day cured sample was measured. Also, contrary to expectations based on the high sulfate contents (10,000–30,000 mg/kg) of the SDM blends, negligible swell (<1%) was measured in five of six SDM blends. The main finding of this research is the SDM blends exhibit the strength, compressibility, and bulking characteristics that make them favorable for large fill applications and subgrade improvement applications at costs equivalent to or less than conventional construction materials.     

Elastic Anisotropic Viscoplastic Modeling of the Strain-Rate-Dependent Stress–Strain Behavior of K0-Consolidated Natural Marine Clays in Triaxial Shear Tests

This paper presents a new three-dimensional (3D) anisotropic elastic viscoplastic (EVP) model for the time-dependent stress–strain behavior of K0-consolidated marine clays. A nonlinear creep function with a limit for the creep volumetric strain under an isotropic or odometer K0-consolidated stressing condition and a nonsymmetrical elliptical loading locus are incorporated in the 3D anisotropic EVP model. An α-line defines the inclination of the nonsymmetrical elliptical loading locus in the p′-q plane and is commonly used for natural soils. All model parameters are determined from the results of one set of consolidated undrained compression tests and an isotropic consolidation/creep test. With the parameters determined, the 3D anisotropic EVP model is used to simulate the behavior of K0-consolidation tests and the strain-rate-dependent stress–strain behaviors of the K0-consolidated triaxial compression and extension tests on natural Hong Kong marine deposit clay specimens. These triaxial K0-consolidated specimens were sheared at step-changed axial strain rates from +2?to?+0.2, +20, ?2 (unloading) and +2%/h (reloading) for compression tests; or from ?2?to??0.2, ?20, +2 (unloading), and ?2%/h (reloading) for extension tests, all in an undrained condition. The simulation results of all these tests are compared with the test results. The validation and limitations of the model are then evaluated and discussed.     

Contraction, Dilation, and Failure of Sand in Triaxial, Torsional, and Rotational Shear Tests

The response of a saturated fine sand (Nevada sand No. 120) with relative density Dr ≈ 70% in drained and undrained conventional triaxial compression and extension tests and undrained cyclic shear tests in a hollow cylinder apparatus with rotation of the stress directions was studied. It was observed that the peak mobilized friction angle for this dilatant material was different in undrained and drained tests; the difference is attributed to the fact that the rate of dilation is smaller in an undrained test than it is in a drained test. Consistent with the findings of others, the material is more resistant to undrained cyclic loading for triaxial compression than for triaxial extension. In rotational shear tests in which the second invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor is held constant, the shear stress path (after being normalized by the mean normal effective stress) approached an envelope that is comparable but not identical in shape to a Mohr-Coulomb failure surface. As the stress path approached the envelope, the shear end deviatoric strains continued to increase in an unsymmetrical smooth spiral path. During the rotational shear tests, the direction of the deviatoric strain-rate vector (deviatoric strain increment divided by the magnitude of change in Lode angle) was observed to be about midway between the deviatoric stress increment vector and the normal to a Mohr-Coulomb failure surface in the deviatoric plane. The stress ratio at the transition from contractive to dilative behavior (i.e., “phase transformation”) was also observed to depend on the direction of the stress path; therefore this stress ratio is not a fundamental property. Results from torsional hollow cylinder tests with rotation of stress directions are presented in new graphical formats to help understand and interpret the fundamental soil behavior.     

Undrained Shear Strength of Pleistocene Clay in Osaka Bay

This study presents the undrained shear characteristics of Holocene and Pleistocene clay samples from depths of 20–200 m under the seabed in Osaka Bay. Automated triaxial K0 consolidation tests and anisotropically consolidated-undrained triaxial compression and extension tests are conducted using the recompression method. The average undrained strength ratio (su/σv0′) is 0.33 (SD = 0.03) when the extension strength is defined as the peak strength or the strength at an axial strain of 15%, while su/σv0′ is 0.29 (SD = 0.04) when the extension strength is defined as the shear stress at the axial strain corresponding to the peak compression strength. Circular arc stability analyses are carried out with the modified Fellenius and Bishop methods for the design cross section of the seawall structure of the Kansai International Airport to study the effects of different definitions of shear strength. The seawall is founded on 19 m of soft Holocene clay and 10 m of Pleistocene sand overlying the Pleistocene clay. The stability analyses show that the factor of safety and depth of the critical circle (i.e., above versus below the sand layer) are sharply affected by both the value of su/σv0′ (0.33 versus 0.29) and the method of slices (Fellenius versus Bishop). The marginal stability calls for careful monitoring of construction with field instrumentation.     

Shear Strength Behavior of Fiber-Reinforced Sand Considering Triaxial Tests under Distinct Stress Paths

The results of drained triaxial tests on fiber reinforced and nonreinforced sand (Osorio sand) specimens are presented in this work, considering effective stresses varying from 20 to 680?kPa and a variety of stress paths. The tests on nonreinforced samples yielded effective strength envelopes that were approximately linear and defined by a friction angle of 32.5° for the Osorio sand, with a cohesion intercept of zero. The failure envelope for sand when reinforced with fibers was distinctly nonlinear, with a well-defined kink point, so that it could be approximated by a bilinear envelope. The failure envelope of the fiber-reinforced sand was found to be independent of the stress path followed by the triaxial tests. The strength parameters for the lower-pressure part of the failure envelope, where failure is governed by both fiber stretching and slippage, were, respectively, a cohesion intercept of about 15?kPa and friction angle of 48.6?deg. The higher-pressure part of the failure envelope, governed by tensile yielding or stretching of the fibers, had a cohesion intercept of 124?kPa, and friction angle of 34.6?deg. No fiber breakage was measured and only fiber extension was observed. It is, therefore, believed that the fibers did not break because they are highly extensible, with a fiber strain at failure of 80%, and the necessary strain to cause fiber breakage was not reached under triaxial conditions at these stress and strain levels.     

Can Soil Arching Be Insensitive to ??

Arching is a common phenomenon that is encountered in backfilling behind retaining walls, trenches, or underground voids in the mine. Marston’s equation has been widely used and modified for computing stresses within backfills, duly accounting for the reduction in stresses due to arching. A critical appraisal of Marston’s equation and its improved forms reveal that the average vertical stress within the soil backfill at any depth is governed by the product of earth pressure coefficient K and wall-backfill frictional coefficient μ, which does not vary significantly with variation in friction angle ? of the granular soil backfill. The average normal stress depends on the value assumed for δ/? and whether the lateral earth pressure coefficient has been assumed as Ka, K0, or KKrynine. Therefore, it is not necessary to direct any effort toward determining the friction angle of the backfill precisely. Rather, attention should be paid to the value of δ/? and the appropriate expression for K. Thus, it can be stated that soil arching is almost insensitive to the friction angle ? of the backfill.     

Influence of Stress Ratio and Stress Path on Behavior of Loose Decomposed Granite

This paper presents results from four series of triaxial compression tests of loosely compacted decomposed granite (DG) or silty sand on both isotropically and anisotropically consolidated specimens. These tests included undrained tests, drained tests with constant deviator stress, and a decreasing mean effective stress path. The silty sand possessed high compressibility during isotropic compression. The observed high compressibility is probably attributed to the loose soil structure created by using the moist tamping method and the presence of crushable feldspar in the soil. Static liquefaction behavior and the so-called “reversed” sand behavior were observed in all undrained tests. This “reversed” sand behavior can be readily explained by the high compressibility of DG leading to the nonparallel and converging nature of the initial state line and the critical state line. Preshearing resulted in a more brittle response in the postpeak behavior. The higher the initial stress ratio (ηc), the smaller the ductility. Structural collapse of DG was observed. This collapse is characterized by a sudden large increase in both the axial and contractive volumetric strains. The mobilized angles of friction at collapse range from 31.8° to 38.7°, which are smaller than the critical state angle (?col′), but higher than the mobilized friction angle of the instability line (28.1°) determined by the isotropically consolidated undrained tests. A trilinear approximate relationship can be found between ?col′ and ηc and a liquefaction potential index is introduced to provide a simple preliminary design parameter for static liquefaction and instability prone slopes.     

Dilatancy and Shear Strength of Sand at Low Confining Pressures

Sand dilates with shearing at a rate that increases with increasing relative density (DR) and decreases with increasing effective confining stress (σc′). The peak friction angle of a sand depends on its critical-state friction angle and on dilatancy. In this paper, we develop a simple correlation between peak friction angle, critical-state friction angle, and dilatancy based on triaxial compression and plane-strain compression test data for sand for a range of confining pressures from very low levels to approximately 196 kPa.     

冲击荷载下含层理介质动态裂纹扩展特性研究

利用数字激光动态焦散线实验系统（DLDC）,对含不同层理角度（30°,45°和60°）的3组有机玻璃板（Polymethyl methacrylate, PMMA）试件进行三点弯落锤冲击试验,借助高速相机记录了试件的断裂过程和裂纹尖端的动态焦散斑形状变化过程,得到了其Ⅰ、Ⅱ型动态应力强度因子的变化特征,并分析了其裂纹尖端位移及速度曲线.结合离散格子弹簧模型（DLSM）,对比分析了试件的断裂形态,得到了裂纹尖端的应力场和运动场的变化规律,研究了应力波在层理处的透射和反射特征,最后利用DLSM分析了层理参数对介质断裂特性的影响.结果表明,试件的断裂特征,裂纹的起裂时间等都随层理角度的变化而不同,裂纹在不同角度层理内扩展速度不同;试件的断裂表现出拉剪复合特征;裂纹在抵达层理前速度在某一数值上下波动;层理的弹性模量和厚度都会对试件的动态断裂特性产生影响.     

Shear Strength of Municipal Solid Waste

A comprehensive large-scale laboratory testing program using direct shear (DS), triaxial (TX), and simple shear tests was performed on municipal solid waste (MSW) retrieved from a landfill in the San Francisco Bay area to develop insights about and a framework for interpretation of the shear strength of MSW. Stability analyses of MSW landfills require characterization of the shear strength of MSW. Although MSW is variable and a difficult material to test, its shear strength can be evaluated rationally to develop reasonable estimates. The effects of waste composition, fibrous particle orientation, confining stress, rate of loading, stress path, stress-strain compatibility, and unit weight on the shear strength of MSW were evaluated in the testing program described herein. The results of this testing program indicate that the DS test is appropriate to evaluate the shear strength of MSW along its weakest orientation (i.e., on a plane parallel to the preferred orientation of the larger fibrous particles within MSW). These laboratory results and the results of more than 100 large-scale laboratory tests from other studies indicate that the DS static shear strength of MSW is best characterized by a cohesion of 15?kPa and a friction angle of 36° at normal stress of 1?atm with the friction angle decreasing by 5° for every log cycle increase in normal stress. Other shearing modes that engage the fibrous materials within MSW (e.g., TX) produce higher friction angles. The dynamic shear strength of MSW can be estimated conservatively to be 20% greater than its static strength. These recommendations are based on tests of MSW with a moisture content below its field capacity; therefore, cyclic degradation due to pore pressure generation has not been considered in its development.     

Properties and Performance of a Pulverized Fly Ash Grout

A laboratory investigation was conducted in order to develop a new grout based on fly ash produced in Greece. Ptolemaida fly ash was selected because of its hydraulic properties and was pulverized (Blaine specific surface over 8,300 cm2/gr, D15 = 1.3?μm, D50 = 6?μm, and D85 = 20?μm) in order to improve its groutability and its hydraulic activity. Pulverized fly ash (PFA) suspensions with selected additives have properties comparable to those of ordinary and microfine cement suspensions. Clean sands were injected using two specially constructed devices. Hydraulic conductivity, unconfined compression, and UU and CU-PP triaxial compression tests were conducted on grouted sand specimens. Coarse sands can be grouted effectively with PFA suspensions. Conventional groutability ratios were found to overestimate the groutability of these suspensions. Grouting with PFA suspensions reduces sand hydraulic conductivity by up to seven orders of magnitude and yields unconfined compression strength values up to 3,000 kPa. The Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion represents the behavior of grouted sand with cohesion values ranging from 280 to 450 kPa and angle of internal friction slightly higher than that of the sands.     

Direct Shear Tests on JSC-1A Lunar Regolith Simulant

A series of direct shear tests were conducted on the JSC-1A lunar regolith simulant in a 101.6-mm- (4-in.-) diameter container. The direct shear test provides a unique mode of failure that aids the development of excavation tools for the Moon. Relative density and normal load were varied to study the strength behavior of such granular material at peak and critical state conditions. The values of the internal friction angle ranged from 30 to 70°. A relationship between the internal friction angle of the direct shear and the published triaxial compression test results is presented. Additionally, the measured dilatancy angle is related to the difference in peak and critical state stress friction angles.     

Scale Effect of Strip and Circular Footings Resting on Dense Sand

This paper presents the results of a research program of strip and circular footings resting on dry dense sand. The scale effect on the bearing capacity and the shape factor s;gg of the footings is investigated numerically and experimentally. The footings are analyzed using the method of characteristics. A wedge failure mechanism has been adopted. Triaxial compression tests conducted under confining pressures up to 2,500 kPa show that the friction angle of dense sand decreases with stress level. The stress-dependent friction angle of soil is adopted in the characteristics analysis. The numerical results indicate that the bearing capacity increases exponentially with footing size. With increasing footing size, the bearing capacity factor N;gg is reduced, while the shape factor s;gg is increased. Centrifuge tests of strip and circular footings with dimensions up to the equivalent of 7 m have been conducted. The experimental work verified the numerical analysis through the consistency of results.     

Field and Laboratory Testing of St. Peter Sandstone

The purpose of this project was to evaluate mechanical properties of St. Peter sandstone by in situ testing, and to compare the field data with laboratory results. Direct shear tests were conducted to evaluate the strength-dilatancy behavior, and thin-section microscopy was used to help explain the significant friction angles associated with the material. St. Peter sandstone is nearly cohesionless, but it possesses a friction angle of 57–63° at low confinement. The large angle of internal friction at failure may be due to locking of sand particles or to postdepositional quartz overgrowths. Tests on pulverized densely packed sand and loosely packed sand were conducted in the same manner as the intact specimens and yielded friction angles of about 42 and 34°. Pressuremeter tests were performed in situ and the results were interpreted using an elasto-plastic analysis in terms of total stresses. By appropriate consideration of system stiffness, Young’s modulus was found to be about 0.5 GPa, slightly lower than the laboratory value, although unload-reload cycles were not attempted. Assuming associative behavior, the friction angle was estimated to be at least 56°.     

Influence of Optimized Tire Shreds on Shear Strength Parameters of Sand

This paper presents the usefulness of optimizing the size of waste tire shreds on shear strength parameters of sand reinforced with shredded waste tires. A relatively, uniform sand has been mixed with randomly distributed waste tire shreds with rectangular shape and compacted at 2° of compaction. Waste tire shreds were prepared with a special cutter in three widths of 2, 3, and 4?cm and various lengths for each shred width. Three shred contents of 15, 30, and 50% by volume were chosen and mixed with the sand to obtain a uniformly distributed mixture. In order to compare the shear strength of different sand–tire shred samples, two compaction efforts in terms of sand matrix unit weights of 15.5 and 16.8?kN/m3 were considered. The results show that the influencing parameters on shear strength characteristics of sand–shred mixtures are normal stress, sand matrix unit weight, shred content, shred width, and aspect ratio of tire shreds. With the selected widths of shreds, compaction efforts, shred contents, and the variations of aspect ratios, it is possible to increase the initial friction angle ?1 up to 113.5%, that is ?1 = 67°. The average value for the influence of aspect ratio variations on increase in friction angle of the mixtures for all tests has been found to be about 25%. These average values for lower and higher compacted samples containing different widths and aspect rations were 37.6 and 17.2%, respectively. It has been investigated that for a given width of tire rectangular shreds, there is solely a certain length, which gives the greatest initial friction angle for sand–tire shred mixtures. This is the main contribution of this paper.     

Acoustic Measurements of the Anisotropy of Dynamic Elastic and Poromechanics Moduli under Three Stress/Strain Pathways

A series of triaxial compression experiments have been conducted to investigate the effects of induced stress on the anisotropy developed in dynamic elastic and poroelastic parameters in rocks. The measurements were accomplished by utilizing an array of piezoelectric compressional and shear wave sensors mounted around a cylindrical sample of porous Berea sandstone. Three different types of applied states of stress were investigated using hydrostatic, triaxial, and uniaxial strain experiments. During the hydrostatic experiment, where an isotropic state of stress was applied to an isotropic porous rock, the vertical and horizontal acoustic velocities and dynamic elastic moduli increased as pressure was applied and no evidence of stress induced anisotropy was visible. The poroelastic moduli (Biot’s effective stress parameter, α) decreased during the test but also with no evidence of anisotropy. The triaxial compression test involved an axisymmetric application of stress with an axial stress greater than the two constant equal lateral stresses. During this test a marked anisotropy developed in the acoustic velocities, and in the dynamic elastic and poroelastic moduli. As axial stress increased the magnitude of the anisotropy increased as well. The uniaxial strain test involved axisymmetric application of stresses with increasing axial and lateral stresses but while maintaining a zero lateral strain condition. The uniaxial strain test exhibited a quite different behavior from either the triaxial or hydrostatic tests. As both the axial and lateral stresses were increased, an anisotropy developed early in the loading phase but then was effectively “locked in” with little or no change in the magnitude of the values of the acoustic velocities, or the dynamic elastic and poroelastic parameters as stresses were increased. These experimental results show that the application of triaxial states of stress induced significant anisotropy in the elastic and poroelastic parameters in porous rock, while under the uniaxial strain condition the poromechanics, Biot’s effective stress parameter, exhibited the largest variation among the three test conditions.     

颗粒刚度变化对胶结砂岩力学响应的影响

为分析胶结砂岩的力学响应和破坏机理,基于试验建立不同刚度比的三维颗粒流数值模型,验证数值模型的可行性,并分析不同胶结性状的砂岩力学响应,进一步说明胶结物质的重要作用及模型的适用性.分析颗粒接触刚度比和平行黏结刚度与颗粒接触刚度的比值变化时,砂岩的应力比、体应变、配位数和平行黏结破坏数的变化规律以及对模型的泊松比、初始刚度和延性的影响.结果表明:不同的颗粒刚度比对岩样宏观力学响应的影响不同,颗粒接触刚度比越小,且切向刚度越大时,胶结砂岩的脆性越强;平行黏结刚度与颗粒接触刚度的比值越大,脆性越强,黏结破坏越容易,剪切破坏越明显.颗粒刚度对胶结砂岩的力学响应和变形能力有重要的影响,是实际储层砂岩力学模拟选择有效细观参数和构建本构关系的关键.