Trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms, maternal sensitivity, and children's functioning at school entry.

Using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, the authors modeled trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms from infant age 1 month to 7 years. The authors identified 6 trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms: high-chronic, moderate-increasing, high-decreasing, intermittent, moderate-stable, and low-stable. Women on these depression trajectories varied in sociodemographic risk and in changes in observed maternal sensitivity over time. Maternal sensitivity was generally higher and increased when depressive symptoms were low; sensitivity was lower and decreased when depressive symptoms were either high or increasing. Child outcomes at 1st grade were examined by trajectory group. The authors discuss the complexity of disentangling maternal symptoms from maternal sensitivity and sociodemographic risk when predicting children's functioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Co-occurring delinquency and depressive symptoms of adolescent boys and girls: A dual trajectory modeling approach.

Co-occurring trajectories of delinquent behavior and depressive symptoms and their correlates were examined in a longitudinal sample of 985 middle-adolescent boys and girls (mean age = 15.54 years at Time 1). Dual trajectory analysis was used to identify the co-occurring trajectories. For boys (n = 472), 4 delinquency and 4 depression trajectory groups were found. For girls (n = 513), 3 delinquency and 3 depression trajectory groups were identified. The linkage between co-occurring trajectories was higher for girls than for boys. Stressful life events and childhood precursors of the outcomes predicted trajectory group membership for both genders fairly consistently. Findings suggest heterogeneity in developmental courses of delinquent behavior and depressive symptoms across adolescent boys and girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in the development and adult outcome of co-occurring depression and delinquency in adolescence.

Using a dual trajectory modeling approach, we examined co-occurring trajectories of depression and delinquency from age 11 to age 18 and their relation to adult outcome six years later in a community sample of 1423 (674 boys) adolescents. We also examined the effects of childhood externalizing, internalizing, and social problems on trajectory membership for depression and delinquency. The results showed that although more girls than boys were likely to follow high-level, co-occurring trajectories on depression and delinquency, the adult outcome of adolescents following high-level trajectories on both domains was poorer for boys than for girls. However, the combination of decreasing depression symptoms and increasing delinquency symptoms across adolescence was related with poorer adult outcomes for girls compared to boys. Finally, whereas boys' high-level co-occurring trajectory of depression and delinquency was predicted by childhood aggression, girls' equivalent trajectory was predicted by childhood depression and delinquency. The findings support the “gender paradox” effect (Loeber & Keenan, 1994) stating that in disorders with an unequal gender ratio, members of the gender with the lower prevalence rate tend to be more seriously affected in terms of comorbidity and poor outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in the longitudinal relations among family risk factors and childhood externalizing symptoms.

Despite potential sex differences in base rates, predictors, and maintaining processes for children's externalizing behaviors, little prospective research has examined sex differences in the relations between concurrent, proximal family risk factors and children's externalizing behaviors. The current study examined the relations among maternal depressive symptoms, maternal parenting behaviors (i.e., negativity and low warmth), and child externalizing symptoms at 24 months and first grade in a community-based sample of 1,364 children enrolled in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Structural equation modeling revealed that maternal depression and negative parental behaviors were associated with concurrent externalizing behaviors, though maternal depression may be differentially linked to boys' and girls' externalizing problems. The relation between depression and boys' externalizing symptoms was more pronounced at 24 months, and over time, the relation between maternal depression and boys' externalizing symptoms decreased in magnitude, whereas this relation increased among girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling Growth in Boys' Aggressive Behavior Across Elementary School: Links to Later Criminal Involvement, Conduct Disorder, and Antisocial Personality Disorder.

The present study used general growth mixture modeling to identify pathways of antisocial behavior development within an epidemiological sample of urban, primarily African American boys. Teacher-rated aggression, measured longitudinally from 1st to 7th grade, was used to define growth trajectories. Three high-risk trajectories (chronic high, moderate, and increasing aggression) and one low-risk trajectory (stable low aggression) were found. Boys with chronic high and increasing trajectories were at increased risk for conduct disorder, juvenile and adult arrest, and antisocial personality disorder. Concentration problems were highest among boys with a chronic high trajectory and also differentiated boys with increasing aggression from boys with stable low aggression. Peer rejection was highest among boys with chronic high aggression. Interventions with boys with distinct patterns of aggression are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trajectories leading to school-age conduct problems.

The present study applied a semiparametric mixture model to a sample of 284 low-income boys to model developmental trajectories of overt conduct problems from ages 2 to 8. As in research on older children, 4 developmental trajectories were identified: a persistent problem trajectory, a high-level desister trajectory, a moderate-level desister trajectory, and a persistent low trajectory. Follow-up analyses indicated that initially high and low groups were differentiated in early childhood by high child fearlessness and elevated maternal depressive symptomatology. Persistent problem and high desister trajectories were differentiated by high child fearlessness and maternal rejecting parenting. The implications of the results for early intervention research are discussed, with an emphasis on the identification of at-risk parent-child dyads. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predictors of depressive symptom trajectories in mothers of preterm or low birth weight infants.

Predictors of maternal depression trajectories were examined longitudinally in families with an infant born preterm or at a low birth weight. A total of 181 mother–infant dyads enrolled in the study before the infant’s neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) discharge. Maternal depressive symptoms were assessed at 5 timepoints, and contextual variables and infant risks were assessed at NICU discharge. Hierarchical linear models revealed that mothers who experienced more risk factors reported more depressive symptoms just before their infant’s NICU discharge and showed less decline in depressive symptoms in the months immediately following the child’s birth. Although cumulative risks predicted depression trajectories, this effect appeared driven by maternal and family sociodemographic risks rather than infant risks. Addition of family support as a covariate in the multilevel models with a subsample of families revealed that social support and depression covaried across time. However, most of the findings regarding the association between risk and depression remained consistent, whereas the effects of maternal race and multiple birth were slightly attenuated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Binge drinking trajectories from adolescence to emerging adulthood in a high-risk sample: Predictors and substance abuse outcomes.

This study describes binge drinking trajectories from adolescence to emerging adulthood in 238 children of alcoholics and 208 controls. Mixture modeling identified three trajectory groups: early-heavy (early onset, high frequency), late moderate (later onset, moderate frequency), and infrequent (early onset, low frequency). Nonbingers were defined a priori. The early-heavy group was characterized by parental alcoholism and antisociality, peer drinking, drug use, and (for boys) high levels of externalizing behavior, but low depression. The infrequent group was elevated in parent alcoholism and (for girls) adolescent depression, whereas the nonbinger and late-moderate groups showed the most favorable adolescent psychosocial variables. All 3 drinking trajectory groups raised risk for later substance abuse or dependence compared with the nonbingers, with the early-heavy group at highest risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predictors and pathways from infancy to symptoms of anxiety and depression in early adolescence.

Data from a prospective 11-year longitudinal survey were used to identify early predictors and pathways to symptoms of anxiety and depression at 12–13 years of age, and to examine whether there were unique predictors of anxious versus depressive symptoms. Structural equation modeling was used to explore longitudinal relations between contextual (maternal distress, family adversities, and social support) and temperamental (shyness and emotionality) risk factors in their prediction of informant-consistent symptoms of anxiety and depression. The results show that early risk factors can explain 38% of the variance in boys’ covarying symptoms of anxiety and depression in early adolescence, and 25% of variance in girls’ covarying symptoms. Two main pathways were identified. One pathway was through temperament, as nearly all risk factors were partly mediated through child emotionality in midchildhood. Another pathway was through early contextual risk factors, with all direct and indirect contextual impact from before 5 years of age. Family adversity uniquely predicted depressive symptoms. These findings underscore the persisting impact of contextual predictors in families with children less than 5 years of age. The importance of early interventions to prevent adolescent internalizing problems is stressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental trajectories of adolescents' depressive symptoms: Predictors of change.

in a sample of 240 adolescents assessed annually in Grades 6 through 11, the developmental trajectories of their depressive symptoms were examined using latent factor growth modeling. Growth in mother-reported adolest.ent depressive symptoms was quadratic; growth in adolescent-reported symptoms was linear. In the model with gender and maternal depression, girls reported a greater increase in depressive symptoms over time than boys, and adolescents of mothers with histories of mood disorders had higher initial levels of depressive symptoms than offspring of never-depressed mothers. After gender and maternal depression were controlled, initial levels of negative attributions and stressors significantly predicted initial levels of adolescent- and mother-reported depressive symptoms. Attributional styles that were increasingly negative across time were associated with significantly higher initial levels (mother reported) and increasing growth (adolescent reported) of depressive symptoms. Reciprocal models in which development of depressive symptoms predicted the development of attributions and stress also were examined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of girls' and boys' aggressive-disruptive behavior trajectories across elementary school: Prediction to young adult antisocial outcomes.

Multiple group analysis and general growth mixture modeling was used to determine whether aggressive- disruptive behavior trajectories during elementary school, and their association with young adulthood antisocial outcomes, vary by gender. Participants were assessed longitudinally beginning at age 6 as part of an evaluation of 2 school-based preventive programs. Two analogous trajectories were found for girls and boys: chronic high aggression- disruption (CHAD) and stable low aggression- disruption (LAD). A 3rd class of low moderate aggression- disruption (LMAD) for girls and increasing aggression- disruption (IAD) for boys also was found. Girls and boys in analogous CHAD classes did not differ in trajectory level and course, but girls in the CHAD and LAD classes had lower rates of antisocial outcomes than boys. Girls with the LMAD trajectory differed from boys with the IAD trajectory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trajectories of pure and co-occurring internalizing and externalizing problems from age 2 to age 12: Findings from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care.

How and why do internalizing and externalizing problems, psychopathological problems from different diagnostic classes representing separate forms of psychopathology, co-occur in children? We investigated the development of pure and co-occurring internalizing and externalizing problems from ages 2 to 12 with the use of latent class growth analysis. Furthermore, we examined how early childhood factors (temperament, cognitive functioning, maternal depression, and home environment) and early adolescent social and behavioral adjustment variables were related to differential trajectories of pure and co-occurring internalizing and externalizing problems. The sample (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care) consisted of 1,232 children (52% male). Mother reports on the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach, 1991, 1992) were used to construct the trajectories of externalizing and internalizing problems. Analyses identified groups of children exhibiting pure and co-occurring internalizing and externalizing problems. Children exhibiting continuous externalizing or continuous co-occurring internalizing and externalizing problems across the 10-year period under investigation were more likely to (a) engage in risky behaviors, (b) be associated with deviant peers, (c) be rejected by peers, and (d) be asocial with peers at early adolescence. However, children exhibiting pure internalizing problems over time were only at higher risk for being asocial with peers as early adolescents. Moreover, the additive effects of individual and environmental early childhood risk factors influenced the development of chronic externalizing problems, although pure internalizing problems were uniquely influenced by maternal depression. Results also provided evidence for the concepts of equifinality and multifinality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation between symptoms of anxiety and depression in children: A multitrait-multimethod-multigroup assessment.

Teacher, parent, peer, and self-ratings of depression and anxiety symptoms were obtained from 280 3rd-grade and 211 6th-grade children. Confirmatory factor analysis of these multitrait-multimethod data for 3rd graders revealed low but statistically significant levels of convergent validity, high levels of method variance, and an extremely high correlation between the depression and anxiety factors, even after controlling for shared method variance. Similar analyses of 6th graders revealed slightly higher levels of convergent validity and a somewhat smaller correlation between the depression and anxiety factors. The data support a unified construct model for younger children and are consistent with either a dual factor or a tripartite model of depression and anxiety in older children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prospective associations of co-rumination with friendship and emotional adjustment: Considering the socioemotional trade-offs of co-rumination.

Co-ruminating, or excessively discussing problems, with friends is proposed to have adjustment tradeoffs. Co-rumination is hypothesized to contribute both to positive friendship adjustment and to problematic emotional adjustment. Previous single-assessment research was consistent with this hypothesis, but whether co-rumination is an antecedent of adjustment changes was unknown. A 6-month longitudinal study with middle childhood to midadolescent youths examined whether co-rumination is simultaneously a risk factor (for depression and anxiety) and a protective factor (for friendship problems). For girls, a reciprocal relationship was found in which co-rumination predicted increased depressive and anxiety symptoms and increased positive friendship quality over time, which, in turn, contributed to greater co-rumination. For boys, having depressive and anxiety symptoms and high-quality friendships also predicted increased co-rumination. However, for boys, co-rumination predicted only increasing positive friendship quality and not increasing depression and anxiety. An implication of this research is that some girls at risk for developing internalizing problems may go undetected because they have seemingly supportive friendships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family functioning in families of children with anxiety disorders.

The authors examined maternal and paternal reports of family functioning and their relationship with child outcomes as well as the association between anxiety and depression in family members and family functioning. Results reveal that maternal and paternal reports of family functioning were both significantly associated with worse child outcomes, including child anxiety disorder (AD) severity, anxiety symptoms, and child global functioning. Maternal and paternal anxiety and depression predicted worse family functioning, whereas child report of anxiety and depression did not. Parents of children with ADs reported significantly worse family functioning and behavior control, but only fathers reported worse problem solving and affective involvement compared with fathers of children with no psychological disorders. Findings from this study suggest that paternal as well as maternal anxiety and depression play a role in worse family functioning in children with ADs and that unhealthier family functioning is associated with worse child outcomes in this population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lipid trajectories as predictors of depressive symptoms: The Young Finns Study.

Objective: The aim of this study was to identify common trajectories of lipid levels across childhood and early adulthood life span. Design: The sample was a subpopulation of 824 young adults (3 to 9 years of age at baseline in 1980) of the ongoing population-based prospective Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Lipid levels were determined in 1980, 1983, 1986, and 2001. Main Outcome Measures: Depressive symptoms were assessed using a modified version of Beck's Depression Inventory (Beck, 1967) in 1992 and 2001. Results: The 2 triglycerides trajectories (steeply vs. moderately increasing) were differently related to depressive symptoms in adulthood. The trajectory showing steep increase over time was associated with higher level of depressive symptoms (M 2.18, 95% CI [2.08, 2.28] vs. 1.99, [1.95, 2.04]). This relationship persisted after adjustments for various risk factors. These triglycerides trajectories accounted for part of the association between high body mass index and depressive symptoms. Conclusion: A pattern of steeply increasing triglyceride levels throughout childhood and adulthood may be associated with increased the risk of depressive symptoms in adulthood. This pattern may also be one link between obesity and depressive symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family risk factors, parental depression, and psychopathology in offspring.

Associations between parents' poor marital adjustment, parent–child discord, affectionless control, low family cohesion, and parental divorce and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) diagnoses were explored in a study of 220 offspring of parents with and without major depression. Family risk factors were more prevalent among offspring of depressed parents. Risk factors were associated with major depression and any diagnosis for children of nondepressed parents; they were associated with conduct disorder for both groups. Parental depression was more important than family risk factors in models predicting major depression, anxiety disorders, and any diagnosis. Both parental depression and family risk factors were significant predictors of conduct disorder. Implications for the etiology of psychopathology and for analytic strategies are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The nature and predictors of the trajectory of change in marital quality over the first 4 years of marriage for first-married husbands and wives.

Both spouses from 198 first-married newlywed couples provided information regarding marital quality and depressive symptoms for at least 2 of 4 annual assessments. Husbands and wives showed equal rates of linear decline in marital quality. For both husbands and wives, decreases in marital quality were accompanied by increases in the severity of depressive symptoms, even with controls for the severity of symptoms not linked to depression. In contrast to previous evidence, plausible longitudinal causal paths between depressive symptoms and marital quality were generally nonsignificant and did not differ between husbands and wives. It is proposed that future studies of marital quality adopt a doubly developmental perspective in which attention is directed to the trajectory of change in "risk factors" for marital distress, the trajectory of change in marital quality, and the link between these 2 trajectories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal findings from the normative aging study: III. Personality, individual health trajectories, and mortality.

Individual differences in physical and psychological health trajectories were examined in 1,515 Normative Aging Study men. Mean age at baseline was 47.15 yrs (range 28–80 yrs), and average follow up was 18.55 yrs (range 8–25 yrs). Both linear and nonlinear growth curves were estimated with random-effects models and then clustered to identify patterns of change. Men whose physical health trajectories were characterized by high, increasing symptoms were higher in hostility and anxiety, were overweight, and smoked. Those whose trajectories were characterized by low symptoms were emotionally stable, educated, nonsmokers, and thin. Men with high, stable psychological trajectories had high hostility; those with low, stable trajectories had high emotional stability; those with moderate anxiety levels had nonlinear trajectories with peaks in psychological symptoms at different life stages. Personality had life-long effects on health trajectories, but these effects varied across traits and health outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trajectories of social withdrawal from grades 1 to 6: Prediction from early parenting, attachment, and temperament.

From 1,092 children in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, the authors identified 3 trajectory patterns of social withdrawal from teacher reports in Grades 1-6: a normative consistently low group (86%), a decreasing group (5%) with initially high withdrawal that decreased, and an increasing group (9%) with initially low withdrawal that increased. Prediction models supported the role of early dysregulated temperament, insensitive parenting, and attachment. Preschool shy temperament was a specific pathway to decreasing withdrawal, and poor inhibitory control was a specific pathway to increasing withdrawal. Children on the increasing pathway were more lonely, solitary, and were excluded by peers. Results suggest differentiated pathways to varying trajectories of social withdrawal and highlight the importance of identification of longitudinal patterns in relation to risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)