The influence of information presentation formats on complex task decision-making performance

Understanding the influence of information presentation formats on decision-making effectiveness is an important component of human–computer interaction user interface design. The pervasive nature and ease of use associated with information display formats in widely used personal productivity software suggests that decision-makers are likely to create and/or use documents with both text-based and more visually oriented information displays. Past research has investigated the role of these displays on simple decision tasks; however, empirical research has not extended to more complex tasks, more comparable to the types of tasks decision-makers face every day. Results from the empirical analysis suggest that the relationship between information presentation format and decision performance is moderated by the complexity of the task. More specifically, spatial formats result in superior decision accuracy for simple- and complex-spatial tasks and faster decision time for all tasks except the complex-symbolic task where graphs and tables result in equivalent decision time.     

Human processing of two‐dimensional graphics: Information‐volume concepts and effects in graph‐task fit anchoring frameworks

This report discusses the findings from three related experiments on the effects of information volume in graph‐task fit anchoring frameworks reported in the literature. Information volume is operationally defined as the size of a data matrix (SDM), that is, the total number of points in a graphical display. The anchoring frameworks specify that an extraction task has high or low x‐value anchoring depending on whether or not the x‐component is represented in the question (as a given or unknown value). A total within‐subject repeated measure experimental design was used to test the effects of SDM on speed and accuracy of data extraction. These experiments also integrated different frameworks to relate the information‐volume effects. Results indicated that increased SDM adversely affected only data extraction time, not accuracy. A significant graph format by information volume interaction was observed; and training did reduce perceived information complexity, especially for high data volume displays. Also, effects of information volume on graph types differed: For vertical bars, a steeply rising monotonic performance‐information volume trend was observed for all tasks. Symbols produced flat nonmonotonic trends for high x‐value anchoring tasks and a gently rising monotonie trend for low x‐value anchoring tasks. In contrast, line graphs produced a gently rising monotonie trend for high x‐value anchoring tasks and a nonmonotonic trend for low x‐value anchoring tasks. Such evidence suggests that information volume effects on human processing of two‐dimensional graphical displays are influenced considerably by the character of the graphic format used for representing quantitative data and by the “fit” in anchoring characteristics between tasks and graphical formats.     

Graphic Representation of Judgmental Information

Graphic displays of information are an important link in the design of user/machine interfaces. However, research on general effectiveness of graphic displays as information organizing formats for judgment and decision making has produced mixed results; graphic formats appear to facilitate judgmental performance in some contexts, but not in others. The two studies reported here examine the relative efficacy of a set of basic graphic display formats, such as might be used to summarize data in an information system, in the context of a task calling for individuals to integrate a set of information cues into an overall judgment. A "lens model" is used as a decompositional framework for representing the relationship between the elements of the information displays and the psychological properties of the multicue judgment task. Combined results from the two studies suggest that judgmental performance is markedly enhanced or degraded by the degree to which the display format provides the user with an organizing structure that facilitates a matching between the relative importance of information and the psychological salience of the display's graphic features.     

Displaying uncertainty: investigating the effects of display format and specificity

We conducted four studies regarding the representation of probabilistic information. Experiments 1 through 3 compared performance on a simulated stock purchase task, in which information regarding stock profitability was probabilistic. Two variables were manipulated: display format for probabilistic information (blurred and colored icons, linguistic phrases, numeric expressions, and combinations) and specificity level (in which the number and size of discrete steps into which the probabilistic information was mapped differed). Results indicated few performance differences attributable to display format; however, performance did improve with greater specificity. Experiment 4, in which participants generated membership functions corresponding to three display formats, found a high degree of similarity in functions across formats and participants and a strong relationship between the shape of the membership function and the intended meaning of the representation. These results indicate that participants can successfully interpret nonnumeric representations of uncertainty and can use such representations in a manner similar to the way numeric expressions are used in a decision-making task. Actual or potential applications of this research include the use of graphical representations of uncertainty in systems such as command and control and situation displays.     

Man,machine and configuration: human factors versus hardware in avionic display design

The reasons for the appearance of a new generation of aircraft cockpits with multifunction displays are briefly explained. The increasing importance of human factors for the optimization of this ‘intelligent’ cockpit is stressed. Multifunction displays will be the most prominent components components of the new cockpit configuration, and some important features of the different types of display are discussed. Special attention is paid to head-down displays and the question of whether colour is required. It is concluded that advances in display hardware are needed and that more efficient man-machine models for performance evaluation could permit the adaptation of the cockpit to the individual pilot not only in seat height but also in control logic and information display.     

An evaluation of a "time tunnel" display format for the presentation of temporal information

The time tunnel display design technique combines the benefits of configural displays (salient visual properties corresponding to critical domain semantics) with the benefits of temporal information (i.e., the value of variables and properties over time). In Experiment 1 a baseline configural display and a time tunnel display were evaluated using real-time measures of system control, fault detection, and state estimation in a simulated process control task. The results provided little evidence in support of the time tunnel format. In Experiment 2 access to the temporal context was limited: Participants performed the detection and estimation tasks with static "snapshots" of system states that had been generated in Experiment 1. The overall pattern of results indicates that the time tunnel display was more effective for state estimation tasks than was the baseline configural display and or a trend display. Issues in the design of temporal displays are discussed, including representational formats and the choice of temporal time frames. Issues in the evaluation of temporal displays are also discussed, including the role of temporal information and the critical nature of participants' access to this information. Actual or potential applications of this research include design techniques for improving graphical displays and methodological insights to guide future evaluations.     

Effects of redundancy in the comparison of speech and pictorial displays in the cockpit environment

Synthesised speech and pictorial displays were compared in a spatially compatible simulated cockpit environment. Messages of high or low levels of redundancy were presented to subjects in both modality conditions. Subjects responded to warnings presented in a warning-only condition and in a dual-task condition, in which a simulated flight task was performed with visual and manual input/output modalities. Because the amount of information presented in most real-world applications and experimental paradigms is quantifiably large with respect to present guidelines for the use of synthesised speech warnings, the low-redundancy condition was hypothesised to allow for better performance. Results showed that subjects respond quicker to messages of low redundancy in both modalities. It is suggested that speech messages with low-redundancy levels were effective in minimising message length and ensuring that messages did not overload the short-term memory required to process and maintain speech in memory. Manipulation of phrase structure was used to optimise message redundancy and enhance the conceptual compatibility of the message without increasing message length or imposing a perceptual cost or memory overload. The results also suggest that system response times were quicker when synthesised speech warnings were used. This result is consistent with predictions from multiple resource theory which states that the resources required for the perception of verbal warnings are different from those for the flight task. It is also suggested that the perception of a pictorial display requires the same resources used for the perception of the primary flight task. An alternative explanation is that pictorial displays impose a visual scanning cost which is responsible for decreased performance. Based on the findings reported here, it is suggested that speech displays be incorporated in a spatially compatible cockpit environment because they allow equal or better performance when compared with pictorial displays. More importantly, the amount of time that the operator must direct his vision away from information vital to the flight task is decreased.     

Effects of in-vehicle warning information displays with or without spatial compatibility on driving behaviors and response performance

A driving simulator study was conducted to evaluate the effects of five in-vehicle warning information displays upon drivers' emergent response and decision performance. These displays include visual display, auditory displays with and without spatial compatibility, hybrid displays in both visual and auditory format with and without spatial compatibility. Thirty volunteer drivers were recruited to perform various tasks that involved driving, stimulus-response, divided attention and stress rating. Results show that for displays of single-modality, drivers benefited more when coping with visual display of warning information than auditory display with or without spatial compatibility. However, auditory display with spatial compatibility significantly improved drivers' performance in reacting to the divided attention task and making accurate S-R task decision. Drivers' best performance results were obtained for hybrid display with spatial compatibility. Hybrid displays enabled drivers to respond the fastest and achieve the best accuracy in both S-R and divided attention tasks.     

Evaluation of visual display techniques for assembly sequence planning

This study examined the effects of visual display formats for assembly planning tasks. A single assembly sequence was presented in: (a) a nonintegrated display format containing an arc and node diagram with an exploding graphic view of each step, and (b) an integrated display that incorporated pictures in the arc and node diagram and allowed enlargement of nodes. Both displays were tested with and without verbal and contextual information using five assembly rules. Overall, participants performed better and preferred the integrated display. Performance depended on the type of rule being examined. An integrated display format with verbal and contextual information is recommended for assembly sequence visualization. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Experimental research into human cognitive processing in an augmented reality environment for embedded training systems

Research into human factors issues associated with the use of augmented reality (AR) technology is very limited. Consequently, there is a need for formal human factors design guidelines to underpin the integration of AR into systems. The Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA) Centre for Human Sciences (CHS) is evaluating the potential of AR for providing real-time training feedback in future advanced embedded training systems for the military. In order to understand the important human factors issues of augmented reality, DERA funded the Advanced VR Research Centre (AVRRC) at Loughborough University to investigate the cognitive ergonomics of this technology. An important aspect of this research is concerned with identifying any human information processing issues that may arise when information is presented via AR and overlaid upon one or more primary display surfaces such as a visual display unit (VDU). Two main issues are addressed in this research. First, the impact of AR on human information processing and second, subjective workload experienced when displaying information via the AR medium. The experiments reported in this paper assess issues of reaccommodation and reaction times to alarms on different display formats. They demonstrate also that AR performs as well as standard display formats.     

An empirical comparison of alternative methodologies for the evaluation of configural displays

Two different methodologies (visual, memory) were used to evaluate alternative versions of the same configural display. One version (composite display) had several graphical design techniques applied, whereas the other version (baseline display) did not. Two types of information probes (high-level property, low-level data) were administered. When the displays were visible during completion of the probes (visual methodology), the display manipulation had the largest impact on performance (composite display associated with better performance); when the displays were not visible (memory methodology) the probe manipulation had the largest impact on performance (high-level probes associated with better performance). These results are interpreted in light of the mutually interacting constraints introduced by factors in display design, task requirements, and the participants' cognitive and perceptual capabilities/limitations. Implications for both the design and the evaluation of displays and interfaces in general are discussed. Actual or potential applications of this research include design techniques for improving the quality of graphic displays and methodological insights for interpreting previous research and guiding future experimentation.     

Effective display of medical laboratory report results on small screens: Evaluation of linear and hierarchical displays

Two studies evaluated linear and hierarchy+elision small‐screen display formats for clinical reasoning tasks. A controlled, quantitative study with 28 medically naive participants using a task abstracted from clinical use of laboratory results found that both display formats supported rapid and accurate decision making. Distribution of the search targets significantly affected speed, with decisions in linear format made 13% faster (4.7 sec) when all targets could be viewed on a single screen than when targets required scrolling between several screens and in hierarchical format 15% faster (5.1 sec) when all the targets were confined within one category. Performance was equivalent regardless of the relative order of the target results and data in the laboratory report. In a qualitative study, 7 physicians used the displays to perform a realistic diagnosis. Physicians were comfortable with both display formats, but preference varied with clinical experience. The 5 less experienced clinicians favored hierarchy+elision, whereas the 2 highly experienced clinicians tended to prefer the linear display.     

Advanced concepts flight simulation facility

The cockpit environment is changing rapidly. New technology allows airborne computerised information, flight automation and data transfer with the ground. By 1995, not only will the pilot's task have changed, but also the tools for doing that task. To provide knowledge and direction for these changes, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Lockheed-Georgia Company have completed three identical Advanced Concepts Flight Simulation Facilities.

Many advanced features have been incorporated into the simulators — e g, cathode ray tube (CRT) displays of flight and systems information operated via touch-screen or voice, print-outs of clearances, cockpit traffic displays, current databases containing navigational charts, weather and flight plan information, and fuel-efficient autopilot control from take-off to touchdown. More importantly, this cockpit is a versatile test bed for studying displays, controls, procedures and crew management in a full-mission context. The facility also has an air traffic control simulation, with radio and data communications, and an outside visual scene with variable weather conditions. These provide a veridical flight environment to evaluate accurately advanced concepts in flight stations.     

Ergonomics guidelines for designing electronic mail addresses

The aim was to design a human-centred electronic mail (e-mail) address system based on networking technology and cognitive ergonomics. Based on the background literature and the results of users' survey, a conceptual model is developed for designing e-mail addresses. This model consists of e-mail address components of formats, domain length, meaningfulness, orientation and information type pertaining to recall, information association and categorization. Five hypotheses were proposed to test the conceptual model, and four experiments were conducted with 85 participants to test the hypotheses. The dependent variables were performance time, error rate and degree of satisfaction, and the independent variables were components of the e-mail addresses. The main results indicate that for a recall task, significantly lower total performance time (26.2%) and error rate (75%) were found for the hybrid formats (digits and letters) than for the letter format, and up to four characters was the best single domain length. For an information association task, embedding both geographical and organizational information significantly decreased the response time (10.9%) in comparison with only embedding organizational information. For a categorization task, embedding both geographical information and organizational information significantly decreased response time (40.7%) in comparison with only embedding organizational information. This research demonstrates the importance of human-centred design and provides guidelines in effectively designing e-mail addresses.     

Ergonomics guidelines for designing electronic mail addresses

The aim was to design a human-centred electronic mail (e-mail) address system based on networking technology and cognitive ergonomics. Based on the background literature and the results of users' survey, a conceptual model is developed for designing e-mail addresses. This model consists of e-mail address components of formats, domain length, meaningfulness, orientation and information type pertaining to recall, information association and categorization. Five hypotheses were proposed to test the conceptual model, and four experiments were conducted with 85 participants to test the hypotheses. The dependent variables were performance time, error rate and degree of satisfaction, and the independent variables were components of the e-mail addresses. The main results indicate that for a recall task, significantly lower total performance time (26.2%) and error rate (75%) were found for the hybrid formats (digits and letters) than for the letter format, and up to four characters was the best single domain length. For an information association task, embedding both geographical and organizational information significantly decreased the response time (10.9%) in comparison with only embedding organizational information. For a categorization task, embedding both geographical information and organizational information significantly decreased response time (40.7%) in comparison with only embedding organizational information. This research demonstrates the importance of human-centred design and provides guidelines in effectively designing e-mail addresses.     

Do grables enable the extraction of quantitative information better than pure graphs or tables?

Previous research is equivocal regarding the most effective methods of presenting quantitative information displays. The differences in results may be due to numerous reasons including the display and inquiry type. This study examines several methods of displaying quantitative information (e.g., line graphs, line grables, bar charts, bar grables, tables, pie charts and pie grables) that were factorially crossed with different kinds of data extraction inquiries (i.e., questions about exact numerical quantities, comparisons, and trends). Grables are displays that combines features of graphs and tables including specific numerical information with each graphically presented category. Results showed that tables, bar grables and line grables produced the fewest errors, and line graphs and bar charts produced the fastest responses across question types. Error rates combining the accuracy and time (i.e., errors/s) were lowest for the three grables and table. Results are discussed with respect to prior theoretical work and the potential benefits of hybrid forms of quantitative displays for multiple kinds of data extraction inquiries.

Relevance to industry

Choosing the best method of displaying information is important for effective decision making. This study evaluates seven types of graphical displays to answer three types of inquiries. Results indicate that in general, the most efficient data extraction (fewest errors per unit time) were produced using grable or table displays across question types. The appropriate display fosters better communication of information.     

Emergency management information systems: Could decision makers be supported in choosing display formats?

Recent information technologies make it possible to include sophisticated three-dimensional display formats in emergency management information systems (EMIS), decision-support systems that facilitate decision making in crisis situations. However, if decision makers are to improve their decisional performance, they must correctly identify appropriate situations for using these formats. We conduct two experiments and find that, as prior research has suggested, decision makers do not choose the most appropriate display format, but their performance improves when given prospective decisional guidance. We discuss implications of these findings for EMIS design, for the training of emergency management professionals, and for future research on display formats and decisional guidance.     

The instrument explosion--a study of aircraft cockpit instruments

Aircraft cockpit instruments have been increasing in number since the Wright Brothers made their first powered flight. As aeroplane development progresses, new systems are continually being added to improve performance or capability and cockpits have now reached the stage where there is often little space left in which to install the monitoring instruments for these additional systems. Fortunately, the advent of electronic cockpit displays offers a solution to this problem. One electronic display can be used to present the information previously requiring several conventional electro-mechanical instruments, with a consequent saving in cockpit panel space. However, cockpit displays must be matched to the pilot's information requirements and processing abilities. If this is not done the advantages of electronic displays will not be realised and the pilot will be in an even worse position than he was before.     

Effects of Information Organization and Presentation on Human Performance in Simulated Main Control Room Procedure Tasks

The organization and presentation of information are critical in designing a display for industrial safety‐critical systems. How they affect human performance is not fully studied yet. Functional displays are newly proposed for nuclear power plant (NPP) main control rooms. The effect of functional organization and the choice of information presentation styles need to be examined. This study aims to explore the effects of information organization (process display vs. functional display), parameter presentation (text vs. bar chart), and component presentation (mimic vs. simplified graph) for better understanding the pros and cons of functional displays designed following function based task analysis (FBTA). Performance data were collected from simulated procedure tasks using eight (2 × 2 × 2) displays. The results indicate that the functional display based on FBTA was more effective than the process display, and this could be mainly attributed to its functional information organization rather than to its presentation styles of parameters and components.     

Factors influencing the design of perspective flight path displays for guidance and navigation

Many types of modern commercial aircraft are equipped with an Electronic Flight Instrument System, comprising several programmable displays. The flexibility in information presentation of these systems offers the possibility to improve the pilot-aircraft interface significantly. Future concepts, such as enhanced and synthetic vision, will further increase these possibilities. To benefit from this, research into new display concepts is being performed to allow the pilot to operate in a four-dimensional (4D) air-traffic environment, to provide improved spatial and navigational awareness, and to enable a better transition from supervisory to manual control. A possible display format is the so-called perspective flight path display, which originated approximately 40 years ago. The design of perspective flight path displays for guidance and short-term navigation requires the specification of several parameters. Suitable values for these parameters depend on requirements with respect to range and resolution of the required information, the properties of the positioning and attitude determination system, and the abilities of the human operator with respect to perception, interpretation and evaluation of information. In this paper, a review of the various factors to be considered in the design of perspective flight path displays is presented. The relations between the guidance/short-term navigation task-related requirements and the design parameters of a perspective flight path display are discussed, and the consequences of the differences between today's guidance displays and perspective flight path displays for algorithms controlling the display symbology are explained.