基于实时内阻测试的锂电池自适应电流充电策略

为降低电动汽车锂离子电池的充电损耗,提出了一种基于实时内阻测试的锂电池自适应电流充电策略。针对该充电策略中电池的实时内阻测试和最优电流集的求解问题,提出了一种电化学阻抗谱(EIS)检测法和随机进化算法。通过在MATLAB/Simulink中进行仿真实验,验证了算法的可行性。在不改变充电时间的情况下,文章所提出的充电策略比传统的恒流充电方法的减损效果更加显著。     

State of charge estimation in electric vehicles at various ambient temperatures

The battery state of charge estimation at various ambient temperatures is critical to keep the electric vehicles safety. To solve the problem of battery model parameters vary with temperature, this work proposes a lithium-ion battery model with temperature effect and a state of charge estimation method at various ambient temperatures. The battery capacity and the open circuit voltage are fitted to establish the connection with temperature, respectively. Dual extended Kalman filters estimate the battery impedance. The experiments show that the lithium-ion battery model with temperature effect has high accuracy at different temperatures. Low temperature has a significant impact on battery model parameters. The proposed method does not need to store many battery model parameters' offline data and reduces the amount of experimental calibration for battery model parameters. The proposed method has a maximum error within 2% at various ambient temperatures. Moreover, the proposed method is robust to the initial state of charge value.     

锂离子电池成组及一致性管理研究现状与展望

归纳和总结锂离子电池和电池组模型、电池成组和电池一致性优化控制的研究方法和存在的问题。同时,对电池一致性管理研究趋势进行展望。提出应根据储能系统实际运行工况和电池成组方式,充分考虑电池连接方式、极柱引出位置、连接件阻抗等,优化电池组模型,提高模型精度。并根据模拟和实验结果,优化电池成组方式和控制策略,解决制约储能产业发展的电池组技术瓶颈。     

Active equalization control strategy of Li-ion battery based on state of charge estimation of an electrochemical-thermal coupling model

Aiming at solving the problem of poor battery cell consistency caused by excessive decay of cell capacity or increased internal resistance during the operation of lithium-ion battery packs for vehicles, the paper proposes an active equalization control with 12-V power supply as an equalization energy source, which achieves efficient energy replenishment of individual cells with low power. The electrochemical-thermal coupling model of lithium-ion battery is built, and the order reduction of large-scale system theory ensures that the model had higher accuracy and lower amount of calculation, which is suitable for vehicle battery management system (BMS). Then the extended Kalman filter algorithm is used to calculate the real-time state of charge (SOC) of each cell and set as an equalization variable. The equalization simulation circuit is built with MATLAB/Simulink, the experimental platform of active equalization system for battery packs is constructed, and the battery packs are tested for equalization in static state. The simulation and experimental results show that the proposed active equalization control strategy can rapidly improve the voltage inconsistency between single cells, and the energy transfer efficiency can reach about 85% during the equalization process.     

An alternating current heating method for lithium‐ion batteries from subzero temperatures

An alternating current (AC) heating method for lithium‐ion batteries is proposed in the paper. Effects of current frequency, amplitudes and waveforms on the temperature evolution and battery performance degradation are respectively investigated. First, a thermal model is established to depict the heat generation rate and temperature status, whose parameters are calibrated from the AC impedance measurements under different current amplitudes and considering battery safe operating voltage limits. Further experiments with different current amplitudes, frequencies and waveforms on the 18650 batteries are conducted to validate the effectiveness of the AC heating. The experimental data recorded by appropriate measurement instrument are of great consistence with simulation results from the thermal model. At high frequency, the temperature rises prominently as the current increases, and high frequency serves as a good innovation to reduce the battery degradation. However, efficient temperature rise can be obtained from high impedance at low frequencies. Typically, 600 s is needed to heat up the battery from ?24 °C to 7.79 °C with sinusoidal waveform and approximately from ?24 °C to 25.6 °C with rectangular pulse waveform at 10A and 30 Hz. The model and experiments presented have shown potential value in battery thermal management studies for electric vehicle (EV)/hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) applications at subzero temperatures. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effect of charge rate on capacity degradation of LiFePO4 power battery at low temperature

Limited by the current power battery technology, electric vehicles show extremely poor duration performance and potential risk at low temperature, which is mainly caused by poor charging performance of lithium-ion batteries. To explore the impact of charging process on cycle degradation at low temperatures, a cycle aging experimental scheme with different charging C-rate (0.3C and 0.5C) under −10°C and −20°C was designed for the commercial LiFePO₄ battery. The experimental batteries showed severe degradation after a few of cycles. The phenomenon of reduced internal resistance and up-shift of the charging curve was found during the early cycle stages (0th-20th cycle). The influence of low-temperature cycle on battery was analyzed by the increment capacity analysis (ICA); the fast decreasing intensity of ①*II showed sharp loss of lithium ions. Those lithium ions mainly transformed into lithium plating and built up dendrites instead of reintercalating into the anode crystal structure, causing the further degradation of capacity and ohmic resistance. Degradation law was obtained by curve regression analysis in the end.     

Analysis of safety performance of lithium-ion power battery during life cycle based on non-destructive testing

基于在不同条件下对车用三元锂离子动力电池的充放电循环试验，分析电池寿命衰减程度及其影响因素。利用X-ray无损检测技术，测试以不同倍率大小电流进行充放电循环前后三元锂离子动力电池的内部结构变化，并评价了电池寿命衰减和安全失效程度，为研究电池寿命衰减及安全失效提供了新的方法。在充放电循环周期过程中，随着电池容量的不断衰减，基于无损检测技术可以获得电池内部结构出现越来越明显的缺陷，说明电池的寿命衰减速度越来越大，其安全性也越来越差。以不同倍率大小电流进行充放电循环后，将不同SOH状态下内部结构的断层扫描图像进行对比，发现车用三元锂离子动力电池的内部结构发生了不同程度的变化，说明与循环前相比电池的使用寿命有不同幅度的衰减。     

State of health prediction model based on internal resistance

The state of health (SOH) is a crucial indicator of lithium-ion batteries. A battery cycle and calendar life are critical for electric vehicle batteries. Complex interactions occur between the SOH and internal resistance of a battery. In this study, several ternary lithium-ion battery charge discharge experiments were performed to investigate the effects of the ambient temperature, discharge rate, and depth of discharge on a battery's internal resistance. An SOH prediction model was then constructed and used to evaluate the remaining capacity of the electric vehicle battery. The model was verified through various experiments, and a comparison of experimental and model-derived data revealed a favorable agreement. Thus, the model accurately predicted the SOH of a ternary lithium-ion battery.     

A fast classification method of retired electric vehicle battery modules and their energy storage application in photovoltaic generation

The fading characteristics of 60 Ah decommissioned electric vehicle battery modules were assessed employing capacity calibration, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and voltage measurement of parallel bricks inside modules. The correlation between capacity and internal resistance or voltage was analyzed. Then, 10 consistent retired modules were packed and configured in a photovoltaic (PV) power station to verify the practicability of their photovoltaic energy storage application. The results show that the capacity attenuation of most retired modules is not severe in a pack while minor modules with state of health (SOH) less than 80% bring about the retirement of the whole pack as a result of the buckets effect. There is no obvious correlation between capacities of retired battery modules and their lithium-ion diffusion coefficients or charge transfer resistance or ohmic resistance, whose reliability is low as the consistency indexes of decommissioning battery modules. The maximum off load voltage difference ΔU_max at low state of charge (SOC) values has a good negative linear correlation with the capacity of retired modules, suggesting that the ΔU_max value at low SOC values can be considered as a characteristic index for fast classification of retired battery modules for large-scale second-life application. A PV power station equipped with retired battery energy storage system (RBESS) can maximize the photovoltaic self-utilization rate. It is an important way to reutilization of retired battery that RBESSs are configured with distributed PV power stations.     

Online detection method for incremental capacity internal resistance consistency

电池包单体内阻的不一致会导致短板单体的过充过放,诱发渐变性故障,加剧电池组的失效,安全检测成为市场需求。本文对不同老化程度的磷酸铁锂充电曲线进行分析之后,提出一种基于容量增量的内阻一致性在线检测方法：对充电数据进行分析得到容量增量峰的特征,进而表征单体之间的内阻差异,最后使用箱型图进行异常检测。使用已设计的电池检测系统对电池包进行在线检测与HPPC检测,验证对比发现：两者归一化的单体内阻分布存在较高的一致性,且容量增量在线检测方法成本低、操作简便,适用于大规模的商业电池进行内阻一致性检测,不会对工程效率以及电池组寿命产生影响。在线检测方法为锂离子电池全生命周期预防性安全检测提供方法指导。     

Review on heat generation theory model of lithium-ion battery

本文根据近年来锂离子电池产热特性方面的研究,详细阐述了锂离子电池产热的基本原理,并总结了国内外锂离子电池产热模型的研究现状。重点针对电化学-热耦合模型、电-热耦合模型以及热滥用模型进行了详细综述,并在此基础上对锂离子电池热效应的研究和产热模型的建立进行了展望。     

A new state‐of‐charge estimation method for electric vehicle lithium‐ion batteries based on multiple input parameter fitting model

The estimation of state‐of‐charge (SOC) is crucial to determine the remaining capacity of the Lithium‐Ion battery, and thus plays an important role in many electric vehicle control and energy storage management problems. The accuracy of the estimated SOC depends mostly on the accuracy of the battery model, which is mainly affected by factors like temperature, State of Health (SOH), and chemical reactions. Also many characteristic parameters of the battery cell, such as the output voltage, the internal resistance and so on, have close relations with SOC. Battery models are often identified by a large amount of experiments under different SOCs and temperatures. To resolve this difficulty and also improve modeling accuracy, a multiple input parameter fitting model of the Lithium‐Ion battery and the factors that would affect the accuracy of the battery model are derived from the Nernst equation in this paper. Statistics theory is applied to obtain a more accurate battery model while using less measurement data. The relevant parameters can be calculated by data fitting through measurement on factors like continuously changing temperatures. From the obtained battery model, Extended Kalman Filter algorithm is applied to estimate the SOC. Finally, simulation and experimental results are given to illustrate the advantage of the proposed SOC estimation method. It is found that the proposed SOC estimation method always satisfies the precision requirement in the relevant Standards under different environmental temperatures. Particularly, the SOC estimation accuracy can be improved by 14% under low temperatures below 0 °C compared with existing methods. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Thermal modeling of a cylindrical LiFePO4/graphite lithium-ion battery

A lumped-parameter thermal model of a cylindrical LiFePO₄/graphite lithium-ion battery is developed. Heat transfer coefficients and heat capacity are determined from simultaneous measurements of the surface temperature and the internal temperature of the battery while applying 2 Hz current pulses of different magnitudes. For internal temperature measurements, a thermocouple is introduced into the battery under inert atmosphere. Heat transfer coefficients (thermal resistances in the model) inside and outside the battery are obtained from thermal steady state temperature measurements, whereas the heat capacity (thermal capacitance in the model) is determined from the transient part. The accuracy of the estimation of internal temperature from surface temperature measurements using the model is validated on current-pulse experiments and a complete charge/discharge of the battery and is within 1.5 °C. Furthermore, the model allows for simulating the internal temperature directly from the measured current and voltage of the battery. The model is simple enough to be implemented in battery management systems for electric vehicles.     

A hybrid lithium‐ion battery model for system‐level analyses

We describe an advanced lithium‐ion battery model for system‐level analyses such as electric vehicle fleet simulation or distributed energy storage applications. The model combines an empirical multi‐parameter model and an artificial neural network with particular emphasis on thermal effects such as battery internal heating. The model is fast and can accurately describe constant current charging and discharging of a battery cell at a variety of ambient temperatures. Comparison to a commonly used linear kilowatt‐hour counter battery model indicates that a linear model overestimates the usable capacity of a battery at low temperatures. We highlight the importance of including internal heating in a battery model at low temperatures, as more capacity is available when internal heating is taken into account. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Machine learning approach for solving inconsistency problems of Li-ion batteries during the manufacturing stage

The inconsistency in the mass production of lithium-ion battery (LIB) packs stem from the inconsistency in the capacity, voltage and internal resistance of single batteries that compose packs. The inconsistency issue of these battery packs can greatly reduce the output performance of a large power pack. This paper proposed the machine learning approach based on self-organization mapping (SOM) neural networks for establishing the consistency of LIBs. This method comprehensively compares and analyzes the real-LIB parameters (internal resistance, capacity and voltage) data obtained during charging and discharging to form the clusters of similar performing LIBs. Experimental result validated the clustering analysis and it indicates that the performance of clustered battery pack typically precedes than that of original. The capacity of clustered battery pack increased 1.9% compared with brand-new pack. The temperature distribution of the battery pack assembled after screening is consistent. The peak temperature is 4°-5° lower than the ordinary battery, and the temperature fluctuation is reduced by 2.6°. In addition, the application of cluster analysis is expanded and some key research directions are pointed out.     

循环充放电条件下锂离子电池的温度模拟

锂离子电池在充放电过程中产生的热量主要为两部分,即因电化学反应而产生的可逆热和由极化产生的不可逆热。若电池内部温度达到82℃以上时,钴酸锂电池材料将发生热分解,引发一系列不可控化学反应,释放出大量的反应热。本论文在可逆热和不可逆热的基础上,耦合电池材料分解热,采用有限元技术,模拟锂离子电池在充放电过程中不同对流条件以及不同外界温度下电池内部温度的变化,为揭示锂离子电池热失控机制提供理论依据。     

High performance plastic lithium-ion battery cells for hybrid vehicles

Exploratory studies on small plastic lithium-ion battery test cells with improved cathode material show high pulse power capability and outstanding stability both in a 25 °C pulse cycling test and in a 55 °C calendar life test. Typical discharge pulse power values are 60 mW/cm². After 50,000 pulse cycles at 5 C rates, cells at 25 °C retain 100% of their initial 1 C capacity and 75% of their pulse power capability. After 60 days at 55 °C, cells measured at 25 °C retain 98% of their initial 1 C capacity and 70% of their pulse power capability. This performance is an excellent basis for the development of long life batteries for hybrid vehicles, as shown by a calculated scale up to a 30 kW hybrid battery for a “Fast Response Engine”.     

Research on parameter identification and state of charge estimation of improved equivalent circuit model of Li-ion battery based on temperature effects for battery thermal management

The performance and parameters of Li-ion battery are greatly affected by temperature. As a significant battery parameter, state of charge (SOC) is affected by temperature during the estimation process. In this paper, an improved equivalent circuit model (IECM) considering the influence of ambient temperatures and battery surface temperature (BST) on battery parameters based on second-order RC model have been proposed. The exponential function fitting (EFF) method was used to identify battery model parameters at 5 ambient temperatures including −10°C, 0°C, 10°C, 25°C and 40°C, fitting the relationship between internal resistance and BST. Then, the SOC of the IECM was estimated based on the extended Kalman filter (EKF) algorithm. Using the result calculated by the Ampere-hour integration method as the standard, the data of battery under open circuit voltage (OCV) test profile and dynamic stress test (DST) profile at different ambient temperatures has been compared with the ordinary second-order RC model, and the advantages of the SOC estimation accuracy with IECM was verified. The numerical results showed that the IECM can improve the estimation accuracy of battery SOC under different operating conditions.     

Simulation and verification of lithium-ion battery temperature changing process

针对软包锂离子电池放电过程中温度变化过程进行研究,依据电池产热基本理论,通过内阻实验及0.5 C放电倍率下的温升实验计算出瞬态生热率曲线,得出电池熵热系数,建立生热速率随放电深度不断变化的瞬态生热模型,基于该模型进行不同放电倍率的温度仿真模拟,并与实验进行对比。结果表明,温度变化模拟结果与实验相吻合,生热率变化模拟结果与实验计算值相符合,模型可以很好地模拟电池在不同放电倍率下的温度变化,对电池温升过程分析及电池热管理过程控制具有指导意义。     

Investigation of solid electrolyte interfacial layer development during continuous cycling using ac impedance spectra and micro-structural analysis

The formation of passivating surface films on the electrodes of a lithium-ion polymer battery was investigated at various cycling state using ac impedance spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A sealed commercial cell (Sony Co.) with a nominal capacity of 840 mAh was used for the experiment. An equivalent circuit used to model the impedance spectra show that, with continuous cycling there is a relatively large increase in the interfacial impedance and charge transfer resistances after a few hundred charge–discharge cycles. It was observed that the cell capacity decrease with increase cell impedance. SEM analysis on the electrodes shows that during continuous charge–discharge cycling, the deposition of sub-micro-size particles and dissolution of surface films on the graphite surface. This observation is consistent with increase in cell impedance as a function of charge/discharge cycling.