Influence of fracture geometry on shear behavior

Laboratory research during the past 10 years has explained many critical links between the geometrical characteristics of fractures and their hydraulic and mechanical behavior. One of the remaining research challenges is to directly link fracture geometry with shear behavior, including behavior in response to changes in normal stress and shear direction. This paper describes results from a series of shear tests performed on identical copies (replicas) of a natural granite fracture. Based on these tests, we developed a method using image processing techniques to identify and quantify damage that occurs during shearing. We find that there is a strong relationship between the fracture’s geometry and its mechanical behavior under shear stress and the resulting damage. Using a three-dimensional geostatistical model of the fracture surfaces, we analyze the dependence of the size and location of damage zones on the local geometry and propose an algorithm for predicting areas that are most likely to be damaged during shearing in a given direction.     

压裂中水力裂缝穿过天然裂缝判断准则

为准确预测水力压裂过程中水力裂缝是否会穿过天然裂缝及其穿出方向,基于弹性力学理论,建立了水力裂缝穿过天然裂缝的判断准则,并给出了水力裂缝穿出天然裂缝时穿出角度的计算方法。计算结果表明：在给定逼近角下对应有确定的水力裂缝穿过天然裂缝所需的水平主应力比值范围,超过或低于这个范围水力裂缝将不能穿过天然裂缝;高逼近角及高水平主应力比值下水力裂缝易直接穿过天然裂缝;在相同逼近角下,水平主应力比值越大,穿出方向总是倾向于靠近增大的水平主应力方向。     

双井筒试验下页岩水力裂缝扩展与机制研究

水力压裂是页岩气开采的主要技术,研究水力裂缝的扩展规律有利于促进复杂缝网的形成。为了研究裂缝扩展规律和破裂机制,对页岩进行了真三轴双井筒水力压裂模型试验。结果表明:(1)竖向应力越大,裂缝形态越单一,多条水力裂缝间越不易沟通,页岩破裂压力越大;(2)水平应力差越大,双井筒水力裂缝与天然层理沟通越明显,越易形成垂直于水平最小主应力的裂缝;(3)双井筒出口在不同层理面时,两条水力裂缝形态相似,各自会沟通层理和天然裂缝;(4)双井筒出口在同一层理面时,两条主裂缝容易相交,与天然裂缝的沟通较少,不易产生缝网;(5)通过对上升斜率RA和频度FA值综合分析得到,页岩水力压裂以剪切破坏为主,在不同层理压裂更易产生复杂缝网。     

三维空间中非连续面对水力压裂影响的试验研究

油气储层常发育断层、天然裂缝、节理等非连续面,其产状、地应力状态对水力裂缝扩展路径会产生重要影响。尤其是在致密油气藏、页岩油气藏等储层中,其天然裂缝影响着水力压裂后的裂缝网络。利用真三轴水力压裂试验设备,模拟了水力裂缝在具有不同产状非连续面的人造岩体中的扩展行为,并分析了泵压曲线的特征。试验结果表明:水平主应力差存在临界值(5~7 MPa),小于该临界值,水力裂缝不可能穿透非连续面;非连续面走向角和地应力差异系数越大,水力裂缝越容易穿透非连续面;非连续面倾角跟水力裂缝的扩展行为没有明显的关系;穿透试验中的泵压曲线跟没穿透试验中的泵压曲线差别明显;压裂曲线峰值泵压均随水力裂缝中点到储层中非连续面的最短距离(简记为DNF)增大而递减。与非连续面的倾角相比,走向角是影响水力裂缝穿透行为的关键因素;准确预测油藏中水力裂缝扩展路径,有必要准确获取非连续面产状和三向地应力场;根据泵压曲线的特征,可判断水力裂缝是否穿透非连续面和定性的判断DNF,为油田现场评价水力压裂效果提供参考。     

砂砾岩储层水力裂缝扩展规律试验研究

由于砂砾岩储层中砾石的存在,导致压裂工程中水力裂缝扩展形态复杂,施工难度大。为了研究砂砾岩储层水力裂缝扩展规律,采用真三轴压裂模拟试验系统对天然砂砾岩露头岩样开展试验研究,分析水平应力差、砾石粒径和分布规律以及压裂液黏度和排量对水力裂缝扩展形态的影响。研究表明:砂砾岩储层的压裂裂缝形态由应力状态和砾石特征共同决定。以小粒径砾石为主的岩样中,砾石对裂缝扩展形态的影响较小,形成单一主裂缝,裂缝面平直;大粒径砾石为主的岩样中,水力裂缝沿着砾石界面偏转并形成分支裂缝,裂缝面扭曲。水平应力差较低、砾石无规则杂乱排布的情况下,分支裂缝的偏转更加明显,裂缝形态更加复杂。同时,水力裂缝由砾石内部起裂时的破裂压力更高。分支裂缝的产生以及裂缝的转向扩展导致裂缝宽度变窄;采用高黏度的胍胶压裂液能够有效增加裂缝宽度,有助于加砂和避免砂堵。     

致密灰岩储层压裂裂缝扩展形态试验研究

开发低孔、低渗的致密灰岩储层需要进行大规模的水力压裂。致密灰岩的成岩过程、矿物组成以及岩石力学性质与致密砂岩等储层差异很大,在不同应力状态以及施工参数条件下水力裂缝扩展形态有待研究。采用真三轴水力压裂试验系统对致密灰岩露头展开压裂物模试验,研究地应力差、压裂液黏度、变排量、酸处理等多种因素对水平井压裂裂缝扩展规律的影响。试验结果表明:当水平地应力差在2~8 MPa之间时,水力裂缝易于沟通天然裂缝形成复杂裂缝网络;压裂液黏度升高,会降低剪切滑移和滤失膨胀的可能性,从而降低裂缝的复杂程度;在走滑断层的应力状态下,即σ_Hσ_Vσ_h,容易形成水平缝,特别是当井眼方向沿着层理面时极易沿着层理起裂;变排量压裂可以激活更多的天然裂缝,有助于形成复杂的裂缝网络;酸液预处理裸眼井段能够显著降低破裂压力,随泡酸时间的增加,破裂压力下降幅度逐渐增大。研究成果为现场压裂施工提供参考。     

Initiation of a secondary hydraulic fracture and its interaction with the primary fracture

Laboratory and field experiments have shown that secondary fracture treatment along a different direction to the primary hydraulic fracture can increase the recovery of gas from tight sands. Success of a restimulation treatment (secondary fracture treatment) is, however, highly dependent on transient stress distribution around the well. In this paper a numerical poroelastic reservoir model is used to provide a more realistic picture of stress field around a stimulated well during post-fracture production. Initiation of a re-oriented hydraulic fracture and its interaction with the primary hydraulic fracture are also studied using a wellbore re-pressurization model that includes a poroelastic formation, a wellbore and a pair of finite conductive hydraulic fractures. Numerical results have shown that during post-fracture production the directions of maximum and minimum horizontal stresses are reversed within a large area around the wellbore and the hydraulic fractures. We have also shown that relatively small areas exist at the wellbore wall where the original directions of horizontal principal stresses remain unchanged. It is shown that the presence of these small areas could act against initiation of a secondary hydraulic fracture along the most desired directions in terms of recovery enhancement. This study also shows that oriented perforations prior to refracture treatment help initiate secondary fractures in a preferred direction before the primary hydraulic fractures start propagation during re-pressurisation of the wellbore.     

Influence of fracture roughness on shear strength,slip stability and permeability:A mechanistic analysis by three-dimensional digital rock modeling

Subsurface fluid injections can disturb the effective stress regime by elevating pore pressure and potentially reactivate faults and fractures.Laboratory studies indicate that fracture rheology and permeability in such reactivation events are linked to the roughness of the fracture surfaces.In this study,we construct numerical models using discrete element method(DEM) to explore the influence of fracture surface roughness on the shear strength,slip stability,and permeability evolution during such slip events.For each simulation,a pair of analog rock coupons(three-dimensional bonded quartz particle analogs) representing a mated fracture is sheared under a velocity-stepping scheme.The roughness of the fracture is defined in te rms of asperity height and asperity wavele ngth.Results show that(1) Samples with larger asperity heights(rougher),when sheared,exhibit a higher peak strength which quickly devolves to a residual strength after reaching a threshold shear displacement;(2) These rougher samples also exhibit greater slip stability due to a high degree of asperity wear and resultant production of wear products;(3) Long-term suppression of permeability is observed with rougher fractures,possibly due to the removal of asperities and redistribution of wear products,which locally reduces porosity in the dilating fracture;and(4) Increasing shear-parallel asperity wavelength reduces magnitudes of stress drops after peak strength and enhances fracture permeability,while increasing shear-perpendicular asperity wavelength results in sequential stress drops and a delay in permeability enhancement.This study provides insights into understanding of the mechanisms of frictional and rheological evolution of rough fractures anticipated during reactivation events.     

储层非均质性对水力压裂裂缝扩展的影响研究

为了研究滤失和储层非均质性对水平井多簇射孔水力压裂裂缝扩展形态的影响,在前期建立的水力压裂流固耦合模型基础上,增加考虑多孔介质内流体流动,裂缝-孔隙间的流体交换和射孔流量分配的物理过程,形成了用于多簇射孔水力压裂裂缝扩展的裂缝-孔隙流固耦合模型,并数值模拟研究了致密砂岩气储层性质均质、非均质下水平井多簇射孔水力压裂裂缝扩展。研究发现:(1)滤失对中间簇射孔水力压裂裂缝扩展影响较大;(2)在储层均质情况下,多裂缝呈对称扩展,而在储层杨氏模量、抗拉强度、基质渗透率等非均质分布情况下,多裂缝呈非对称、非均匀扩展;(3)在储层复杂非均质情况下,四簇和三簇射孔水力压裂存在射孔簇过度改造、欠改造、甚至未起裂扩展的情况,尤其是在小间距条件下的四簇射孔。而两簇射孔水力压裂即使在间距较小时裂缝也能正常起裂扩展。因而,为了裂缝更多地有效扩展,在实际工程中,如果水力压裂密集施工,建议采取两簇射孔压裂;如果水力压裂不密集施工,兼顾施工成本建议采取三簇或四簇射孔压裂。     

页岩水力压裂裂缝形态的试验研究

为深入认识页岩储层水力裂缝延伸规律及其空间形态,采用真三轴岩土工程模型试验机、压裂泵压伺服控制系统、Disp声发射定位系统和工业CT扫描技术,建立了一套室内页岩水力压裂大型物理模拟试验方法,并通过试验后页岩试样水力裂缝的延伸与空间展布规律,初步探讨了页岩水力压裂网状裂缝的形成机理。结果表明：裂缝延伸时泵压曲线典型的锯齿状波动与裂缝网络的形成密切相关,是页岩体积压裂的一个明显特征。页岩层理面的发育程度、泵压大小和地应力状态对裂缝形态有显著影响,水力裂缝在层理面内的分叉、转向进而沟通天然裂缝是形成裂缝网络的关键,而层理面过弱或过强都不利于网状裂缝的形成;对层理面胶结强度适中的地层,地应力对裂缝的延伸有较大影响;在低排量且维持较低泵压时,裂缝易于转向,且更易形成网状裂缝,而达到体积压裂。建立的页岩水力压裂物理模拟试验方法及试验结果可为页岩气压裂优化设计等提供技术支持。     

Numerical simulation on shear fracture process of concrete using mesoscopic mechanical model

The numerical simulation of the damage and fracture processes of concrete structures has evolved considerably in the past years. In this contribution, a newly proposed mechanical model is used to simulate the fracture behavior of double-edge notched (DEN) and double central notched (DCN) concrete specimens loaded in shear. In this numerical model, the concrete is assumed to be a three-phase composite composed of matrices, aggregates and matrix–aggregate interfaces. An elastic finite element program is employed as the basic stress analysis tool while the elastic damage mechanics is used to describe the constitutive law of meso-level element. The maximum tensile strain criterion and Mohr–Coulomb criterion are utilized as damage thresholds. The heterogeneous stress field is obtained from numerical simulation, thus it is found that heterogeneity of mechanical properties has significant effect on the stress distribution in concrete. The crack propagation processes simulated with this model shows good agreement with those of experimental observations. It has been found that the shear fracture of concrete observed at the macroscopic level is predominantly caused by tensile damage at the mesoscopic level.     

裂缝性页岩储层多级水力裂缝扩展规律研究

水力裂缝监测技术显示页岩储层中水力裂缝形态复杂,与传统的砂岩储层有本质区别,传统的裂缝扩展模型难以描述和解释页岩地层裂缝扩展的复杂性。基于线弹性断裂力学理论,针对页岩地层裂缝发育的特征,采用位移不连续法建立了一种多裂缝扩展二维数值模型,模拟了页岩地层中水力裂缝在随机分布的天然裂缝干扰下扩展的复杂形态。数值模拟显示,当相对净压力较大、天然裂缝与初始水力裂缝最优扩展方向夹角较大时,更倾向于形成复杂形态裂缝;水平应力差较大时,水力裂缝分叉的几率越小,通过对页岩露头的真三轴水力压裂物理模拟试验研究进一步验证了数值模拟方法的合理性,龙马溪组页岩地层的微地震监测解释结果与本数值模拟结果吻合良好。     

层理对页岩水力裂缝扩展的影响研究

 层理、裂隙等结构面的存在是实现页岩气藏储层体积改造的前提。为分析层理对页岩水力裂缝扩展的影响,在各向异性材料裂纹尖端应力场分布特征的基础上,开展切口与层理呈不同方位的圆柱形试样三点弯曲试验,研究页岩断裂韧性的各向异性特征,并揭示其断裂机制的各向异性,进而根据真三轴条件下页岩水力裂缝的延伸规律,探讨了层理在页岩网状压裂缝形成过程中的重要作用,结果表明：(1) 各向异性材料裂纹尖端的应力场和位移场不仅由应力强度因子决定,还与材料的弹性常数有关;(2) 切口与层理呈crack-arrester,crack-divider和crack-splitter三种方位时,页岩断裂韧性在crack-arrester时最大,crack-splitter时最小,各向异性显著,而层理面开裂和断裂路径偏移是引起断裂韧性各向异性的主要原因;(3) 页岩层理的弱胶结作用使其断裂韧性较小,阻止裂纹失稳扩展的能力较弱,而在垂直层理方向,断裂韧性较大,阻止裂纹扩展的能力较强,当水力裂缝垂直层理扩展时,在弱层理面处会发生分叉、转向,且在继续延伸的过程中会进一步沟通天然裂缝或弱层理面而形成复杂的裂缝网络,达到体积压裂。研究结果可为深入认识页岩气藏储层体积压裂形成条件及机制提供一定参考。     

Active seismic monitoring of hydraulic fractures in laboratory experiments

In scaled laboratory tests, we perform acoustic measurements in a time-lapse sequence to separate the fracture response from the background signal. Using both compressional and shear waves (that are very sensitive to fluid filled fractures) we can, not only detect the hydraulic fracture, but also characterize its shape and geometry during its growth. We show the application of the technique to propagation and reopening of hydraulic fractures. During fracture growth the acoustic waves excite diffractions at the tip of the fracture. Depending on the acquisition geometry, we detect many events related to surface waves propagating along the fracture. Also, we observe that shear waves detect the migration of the fluid front during reopening of a pre-existing hydraulic fracture, in contrast with the compressional waves which are insensitive to the fluid front during reopening.     

Experimental and numerical study of the geometrical and hydraulic characteristics of a single rock fracture during shear

Coupled shear-flow tests were conducted on two artificial rock fractures with natural rock fracture characteristics under constant normal loading boundary conditions. Numerical simulations using the 3-D Navier–Stokes equations taking account of the inertial effects of fluid were conducted using the void space geometry models obtained from the coupled shear-flow tests. The test and numerical simulation results show that the evolutions of geometrical and hydraulic characteristics of rock fracture exhibit a three-stage behavior. Transmissivity of a certain void space geometry within a fracture is related to the Reynolds number of fluid flow due to the inertial effects of fluid, which can be represented by the Navier–Stokes equations, but cannot be represented by some simplified equations, such as the cubic law, the Reynolds equation or the Stokes equations. The mechanical aperture is usually larger than the hydraulic aperture back-calculated from measured flow rate, and the difference between them is found strongly related to the geometrical characteristics of the fractures. A mathematical equation is proposed to describe the relation between hydraulic aperture and mechanical aperture by means of the ratio of the standard deviation of local mechanical aperture to its mean value, the standard deviation of local slope of fracture surface and Reynolds number.     

酸液预处理对深部裂缝性页岩储层压裂的影响机制

深层裂缝性页岩油气藏具有高温、高应力、高破裂压力以及低渗透的特点,极大提高了现场压裂施工难度,如何有效改善近井筒岩石学性质及降低施工压力是安全高效压裂的关键。从岩石力学性质的影响因素入手,分析了酸化过程中酸与矿物的化学反应,从宏观和微观两方面阐述了酸液预处理改善近井筒岩石性质、降低破裂压力的力学机理。选取川东南地区龙马溪组页岩露头开展真三轴水力压裂物理模拟试验,采用酸液预处理压裂试件的裸眼井段,分析酸岩反应对水力裂缝起裂及扩展规律的影响。试验结果表明,酸液浸泡裸眼井段能够显著降低页岩破裂压力,酸岩反应会引起天然裂缝面性质的变化,容易导致近井筒附近复杂多裂缝的形成;裂缝扩展穿透酸化区时会引起二次憋压,酸化区内的天然裂缝越发育,酸岩反应越剧烈,近井筒裂缝形态越复杂,压裂曲线波动越频繁。室内试验和现场施工结果吻合程度良好,证实了通过酸液预处理提高深部页岩地层改造效果的有效性。     

A method to experimentally investigate injection-induced activation of fractures

Natural fractures are generally well developed in most hydrocarbon and geothermal reservoirs, which can produce complex fracture networks due to the activation of fractures during hydraulic stimulation. The present paper is devoted to developing a method to investigate the activation characteristics of fracture under injection-shearing coupled condition at laboratory scale. The fluid is injected into the single-fractured granite until the fracture is activated based on the triaxial direct shear tests. The results show that injection process can significantly influence the shear stress distribution field, resulting in release of shear stress and relative slip between the opposite sides of the fractured surface. The injection-induced activation of fracture is strongly dependent on the stress states. When the normal stress increases, the injection-induced activation pressure increases, and the comparatively high normal stress can restrain the fracture activation. The fracture deformation mechanisms during fluid injection are also discussed preliminarily with the experimental data. The sensitivity of shear stress to fluid injection increases with increase of shear stress level, while it decreases under high normal stress. The results can facilitate our understanding of the natural fracture activation behavior during fluid pressure stimulation.     

Influence of fracture orientation on excavatability of soft sedimentary rock using a hydraulic impact hammer: A case study in the Horonobe Underground Research Laboratory

In the Japanese deep geological disposal project for high-level radioactive waste, the ease of excavation of a potential host rock is a key issue for the economics of project implementation. This is because it is estimated that about 300-km of disposal drifts will need to be excavated for the disposal of 40,000 waste packages deep underground. In this study, the influence not only of the mechanical properties of intact host rock, but also fracture characteristics and their effect on the practical excavation rate of drifts using a hydraulic impact hammer were analyzed. The drifts were excavated through soft sedimentary rock in the Horonobe Underground Research Laboratory. Fracture mapping was conducted at the excavation face before every excavation round for the evaluation of fracture characteristics. Equotip hardness testing was also conducted to estimate the strength of intact rock. The results indicate that the excavation rate of the drift excavated in the direction perpendicular to natural fractures was faster than the excavation of the drift excavated in the direction parallel to natural fractures. In addition, the drift excavated in the direction perpendicular to natural fractures had a good correlation with fracture density. This result suggests that the preferred direction of disposal drifts should be perpendicular to the major natural fractures in the host rock to optimize excavatability in any deep geological disposal project.     

页岩水力压裂水力裂缝与层理面扩展规律研究

在对含天然层理弱面页岩进行水力压裂过程中,水力主裂缝的起裂、扩展及层理面的扩展对缝网的形成有重要影响。为研究水力主裂缝的起裂、扩展规律和层理面对水力裂缝扩展的影响,开展真三轴试验条件下的水力压裂试验,采用声发射系统监测水力压裂过程,并在试验后对试样进行剖切与CT扫描;同时进行定量的理论分析,并通过试验结果验证。研究表明:(1)起裂方向由初始角度转至最大水平主应力方向;垂向应力与水平最大主应力相差极小时,各个方向起裂压力相差极小,裂缝很快转向最大水平主应力方向。(2)水力主裂缝整个扩展过程中所需水压区间与裂缝长度、断裂韧性值相关。(3)形成由层理面与主裂缝构成的网状的裂缝系,层理面在主裂缝的靠近过程中张开区的长度极小,主要在主裂缝接触到层理面后产生较大的张开区与剪切区,层理面的剪切区域长度远大于张开区域长度,剪切区域提供主要的导流通道;剪切区的长度对层理面黏聚力c和水力裂缝与层理面交角?参数敏感性很高。研究结果可以为压裂模型的建立提供几何参数,并对施工参数的设计有指导意义。