生态系统服务评估在美国城市绿色基础设施建设中的应用进展评述

城市绿色基础设施提供着雨洪管理、空气净化、气候调节、能耗节约、提供生态栖息地以及文化功能等重要的生态系统服务。近年来,在美国国家环保局、美国风景园林基金会等相关组织机构的倡导下,生态系统服务监测和评估被结合到城市绿色基础设施的规划建设之中。本文分析了城市绿色基础设施生态系统服务的研究进展和评估方法,并归纳了现今美国生态系统服务评估在绿色基础设施建设中的应用方式,包括为政策制定提供量化依据、为项目认证提供评价标准、以及为项目建设提供收益分析3种类型。最后,本文探讨了对我国绿色基础设施建设的相关启发,包括加强城市绿色基础设施生态系统服务研究和实践的结合,重视城市绿色基础设施生态系统服务的整体性和协同性,以及完善基于生态系统服务的城市绿色基础设施绩效监测体系3个方面。     

Assessing and mapping ecosystem services to support urban green infrastructure: The case of Barcelona,Spain

The ecosystem services approach provides an efficient way to support urban green infrastructure planning. Such an assessment, together with mapping, can effectively produce spatial analyses on a specific scale, helping to maintain multi-functional landscapes and plan urban green infrastructure. In turn, green infrastructure can offer a wide variety of ecosystem services, promoting landscape sustainability. This study develops a methodology for the planning of urban green infrastructure based on an ecosystem services approach that assesses the supply capacity of ecosystem services, and identifies possible spatial characteristic areas for interlinking urban green infrastructure within the study area. More specifically, from a landscape perspective, we use 32 ecosystem services (as X-axis) and different land use types (as Y-axis) to build an ecosystem service assessment matrix. We then take the municipality of Barcelona as an example, using the latter to assess and map ecosystem services within the city through ArcGIS, which shows the spatial distribution characteristics of ecosystem services provision. We identify possible spatial areas - which include ecosystem services provision, barren, and obstructed areas - by overlapping the ecosystem services assessment maps. Ultimately, the results provide a reference for urban green infrastructure planning by recognizing priority protected areas, new construction areas, potential areas, and renewal areas.     

Public Facilities in Public and Private Housing Projects in Dhaka,Bangladesh

Cities in developing countries are confronted with two conflicting problems. On the one hand, there is always an increasing demand for urban services and, on the other hand, the public sector responds poorly to the growing demand for such services. This articleexplores and compares the status of physical and environmental infrastructure and services provided in public and privately developed land and housing projects in Greater Dhaka, Bangladesh. The study made use of primary data gathered from April to June 2008. The findings indicate that although some households and developers are aware of the planning regulations which mandate infrastructure and services, this does not necessarily translate into compliance, particularly in privately developed housing projects. As a result, projects are usually developed with inadequate and unsatisfactory facilities. The analysis revealed that most physical and environmental infrastructure and services are either missing or unsatisfactory. These include narrow roads inconsistent with standard widths, little open space for social activities, few areas for childrens' playgrounds and poor waste management. The factors that explain the relatively low levels of physical environmental conditions in privately developed projects include an absence of inter-agency coordination, corruption, a lack of good governance, and political interference, along with disregard and apathy on the part of developers and buyers towards planning regulations. In the light of these findings, this article proposes stronger enforcement of planning regulations and more consistent monitoring by planning agencies to achieve better planned residential areas in Dhaka.     

Infrastructure epistemologies: water,wastewater and displaced persons in Germany

Recent years have seen historically unprecedented global disaster migration; in 2016 Germany received 1.3 million displaced individuals. Regardless of past resources and future potential, disaster migrants are a new, vulnerable population. This new population increases demand for water and wastewater infrastructure services, despite being temporarily unable to pay for services. As such, this kind of sudden population increase is a resiliency challenge for the receiving infrastructure systems. Qualitative analysis of 1,884 open-ended survey responses was blended with a statistical analysis to discover how and why the German public perceives water and sanitation services have been provided to the disaster migrants. Unprompted, 36% (112/314) of respondents referenced at least one of three infrastructure epistemologies, including water and wastewater as a service, as a basic need, and as a human right. These epistemologies share statistically significant relationships with how long respondents feel water and wastewater should be provided to displaced persons. A temporally limited, normative perception of water and sanitation as a humanitarian good functions to enable water and wastewater infrastructure to deliver a high level of service despite the significant disruption of the large and vulnerable population influx, and has practical implications for the structure of cost recovery.     

Multiagent Simulation for Complex Adaptive Modeling of Road Infrastructure Resilience to Sea‐Level Rise

Infrastructure systems in coastal areas are exposed to episodic flooding exacerbated by sea‐level rise stressors. To enable assessing the long‐term resilience of infrastructure to such chronic impacts of sea‐level rise, the present study created a novel complex system modeling framework that integrates: (i) stochastic simulation of sea‐level rise stressors, based on the data obtained from downscaled climate studies pertaining to future projections of sea level and precipitation; (ii) dynamic modeling of infrastructure conditions by considering regular decay of infrastructure, as well as structural damages caused by flooding; and (iii) a decision‐theoretic modeling of infrastructure management and adaptation processes based on bounded rationality and regret theories. Using the proposed framework and data collected from a road network in Miami, a multiagent computational simulation model was created to assess the long‐term cost and performance of the road network under various sea‐level rise scenarios, adaptation approaches, and network degradation effects. The results showed the capabilities of the proposed computational model for robust planning and scenario analysis to enhance the resilience of infrastructure systems to sea‐level rise impacts.     

Institutional, geographic, and facility factors affecting differences in prices for wastewater services

The provision of wastewater services is an important infrastructure service that affects social welfare. It improves the quality of community life by promoting sanitary conditions and minimizing the negative impact of wastewater on ecosystems. The price for this important public service, however, varies considerably across regions and localities. In this paper, we examine the physical factors and institutional characteristics that affect wastewater service prices across regions and localities. Our major concerns are the following: (1) institutional arrangements and characteristics of a wastewater utility, (2) government regulations, (3) supply factors and characteristics, and (4) natural environments and local characteristics. To analyze the price differences, we employ the demand and price equations for wastewater services using a simultaneous equations framework. For empirical estimation, we utilize a seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) method to account for the correlations between the residuals in the four price equations for wastewater services. Our empirical results are that the institutional arrangement of services, including monthly charges (versus bi-monthly or quarterly charges), provision of other infrastructure services in addition to wastewater services, and long-term debt, explain much of the price difference. In addition, the wastewater prices are influenced by state environmental regulations as well as supply factors, such as the number of wastewater treatment plants and infiltration and inflow into the sewer system. Interestingly, local geographic and meteorologic factors that were hypothesized to affect the selection of treatment processes were not found to be associated with price. These findings suggest ways wastewater services might be offered at lower prices for users.     

Inequities in the broadband revolution

Residential broadband options such as cable and digital subscriber lines are growing in popularity. However, evidence suggests that urban areas are receiving the majority of infrastructure investment, thereby leaving many rural locations with few options for broadband access. With access to telecommunication infrastructure becoming an increasingly important component to local economic development, issues of infrastructure equity are significant. This paper explores telecommunication equity and its effect on economic development by addressing the impact of geography on infrastructure investment and growth. A comprehensive database of broadband service providers and data from the Ecom-Ohio project (http://www.ecom-ohio.org), are used to explore broadband access options in the state of Ohio by examining the characteristics of market demand that are driving cable and digital subscriber line infrastructure investment. In addition, this paper develops an explanatory framework for identifying key market characteristics indicative of demand for residential broadband services through the use of statistical models and a geographic information system. Results suggest that income, education, age, location, and competition from alternative broadband platforms influence digital subscriber line infrastructure investment. Received: November 2001/Accepted: September 2002     

武汉中心城区生态系统服务额外需求 量化评估——缘起绿色基础设施供需错配

生态系统服务从产生到使用是一个动态流动过程,分别对应着生态系统服务的供给与需求,然而在城市化过程中,人口的聚集及绿色基础设施的破碎导致城市生态系统服务供需失衡极为严重。当生态系统服务供给无法满足需求时,则存在生态系统服务额外需求。通过量化评估生态系统服务的额外需求,将为绿色基础设施的精确供给提供决策依据。以武汉中心城区为例,以街区作为基本单元,选择合适的环境质量标准作为额外需求阈值,对以下4项生态系统服务额外需求进行量化评估与空间制图:空气净化、雨洪调节、温度调节和游憩服务,并采用熵值法求得各项服务的权重,叠加得到综合的生态系统服务额外需求。最终评估结果可作为武汉中心城区绿色基础设施优先实施区域与类型的规划依据。     

Contextualizing transport infrastructure and services in Ghanaian peri-urbanism

This study interrogates the demand and supply of transport infrastructure and services in peri-urban areas of Sunyani Municipality in Ghana. Structured one-on-one interviews were conducted with 100 households across three peri-urban communities in Sunyani (Abesim-Kyidom, Asuakwaa and Adomako). Findings revealed that a majority of peri-urban households (84%) in the study communities who commute daily to and from the city centre are faced with poor transport infrastructure (e.g. poor conditions of road) and unreliable services (e.g. unregulated public transport). Inadequate investment in transport infrastructure and services by the Ghanaian government, the limited activity locations in peri-urban areas, and the concentration of activity locations at the city centre were identified to be contributing to the poor state of transport infrastructure and services in the case study communities. Policy recommendations to improve the situation are further proffered.     

Allocation mechanisms in public provision of transport and communication infrastructure

This study explores the allocation mechanisms in the public provision of interregional transport and communication infrastructure in Sweden. The logistics of the flow of infrastructure investments from the government budget is examined. The purpose is to consider how the demand for infrastructure investment is estimated by public agencies, how judgments are made on governmental expenditure policy, and what determines the spatial distribution of infrastructure investment. The analysis is carried out along four main lines; demand for infrastructure services, political intentions and goals, the modal composition of investments for transport and communication, and the spatial distribution of infrastructure. The discussion considers functional, spatial, and temporal consistency aspects in the public provision of infrastructure.     

远程耦合：绿色基础设施绩效评价的空间 生态智慧

绿色基础设施提供的非原位生态系统服务通过服务流动耦合存在空间分异的自然系统和人类系统，并以需求效度表征远程供需空间和数量上的匹配程度，才能真实反映绿色基础设施的绩效能力。在生态智慧的引领下，运用远程耦合框架对供需关系进行重新思考，通过空间关联、空间过程和空间协同的系统性内涵，深化绿色基础设施非原位生态系统服务在空间上的认知，同时运用生态系统服务理论及其评价体系为远程空间的复杂关系呈现提供理论和量化途径，重建绿色基础设施绩效评价的技术框架。最后，基于远程耦合的空间系统、路径系统和交付意愿实现供需匹配、分配和利益的正和博弈，同时认知绿色基础设施的关键生态系统服务，识别、测度和制图绿色基础设施“供给-流-需求”的全过程，反馈需求效度并进行重点空间的调控，构建绿色基础设施绩效评价的实施框架。     

山水江城——重庆市江津北部新区城市设计方案

介绍了重庆市江津区北部新区的城市设计理念与方案。设计以生态基础设施作为新城的基本框架结构,用以组织城市的空间形态和功能布局,并最终成为城市的特色。该生态基础设施对应于城市的市政基础设施为城市提供的社会经济服务,并为城市的可持续发展提供生态服务,它们是城市居民最基本的需要,也是城市生态与人文特质的基本保障。基于这一理念和方法论,根据场地＂三面云山一面江、溪水内聚到明堂＂的场地特征,形成了＂坐山—留水—眺江＂的＂茶花状＂主体城市格局,塑造了一个既具生态与人文气质又极富经济活力的江津新城。     

针对婴幼儿及其看护者的新冠肺炎(COVID-19)城市应对方案

A million new neural connections are formed every second in a baby’s brain. These connections lay the foundations of their lifelong development, and are shaped by the amount and quality of care they receive from their primary caregivers, and by their immediate environment. To protect their health and limit negative consequences from COVID-19 on their long-term development, cities need to tailor their COVID-19 response to the needs of babies, toddlers, and their caregivers. The COVID-19 pandemic affects babies and toddlers in cities by making it harder for their caregivers — most often their parents — to access their regular support systems, due to closures of services and key infrastructure such as parks, mobility restrictions, or isolation from the community. Cities can actively support caregivers through a range of solutions allowing remote access, or adapting infrastructure, services, and facilities to ensure safe in-person access to key services and urban spaces. This does not always require new solutions, but rather a systematic consideration of their needs into existing interventions. To do so, cities can combine empathy methods with data about families, and use those when assessing the situation, and then locating and designing their urban response to COVID-19.     

The evolution of urban water systems: societal needs,institutional complexities,and resource costs

ABSTRACT

Urban water systems provide critical services to meet the supply, sanitation, and drainage needs of urban societies. Evolving needs have resulted in increasingly expansive infrastructure, raising questions about the sustainability of such large infrastructure investments. In this study, we demonstrate the historical interplay between growing urban water needs, the services developed to meet them, and their total resource cost. We hypothesize that needs evolve hierarchically, with predictable outcomes in the form of service progression. To test this hypothesis, we use a suite of metrics at the US national scale indicative of our proposed hierarchy levels. At the city scale, we assess the cost implications of this progression of services. We use the emergy framework to quantitatively reconstruct the historical resource requirements of supply, sanitation, and drainage services and show how evolving needs lead to mounting resource costs. Lastly, we discuss implications of continually increasing complexity for meeting future water needs.     

基于元胞自动机模拟城市扩张下的绿色基础设施布局演变与内涝风险评估——以武汉市为例

武汉作为中国中部地区城镇化发展最为迅速的城市之一,提供重要生态系统服务功能的绿色基础设施面临建设用地扩张下的空间置换、总量缩减、结构破碎等问题。以武汉市绿色基础设施雨洪调蓄功能为切入点,通过遥感影像解译结合地形、土地利用等数据对武汉市域内的绿色基础设施进行空间格局及水文区位分析;通过构建模拟城市扩张的元胞自动机模型,整合城镇建设用地增长的发展引导约束条件与空间控制约束条件作为运算规则,计算转换概率来模拟城市的扩张;以此分析城市扩张所带来的不同类型绿色基础设施的格局演变与内涝风险。研究发现在城市扩张过程中武汉市水文关键区位敏感性高且易被侵占,建成区将面临雨洪调蓄功能降低所带来的内涝风险。城市扩张与用地的博弈难以避免,绿色基础设施作为发挥城市雨洪调蓄功能的天然载体,其结构完整性对于城市水文过程良性循环起本底作用。保护在城市发展过程中敏感性高、易被侵占且具有关键水文功能的区域,根据风险程度建立多级控制体系,对于武汉市绿色基础设施保护及内涝防治具有重要意义。     

Infostructures: Towards a Complementary Approach for Solving Urban Challenges through Digital Technologies

Abstract

Population growth in cities has led to unprecedented pressure on urban infrastructure services, such as electricity supply and public transport. As a consequence cities need to find sustainable solutions to maintain the availability of services while keeping them economically and environmentally viable. One traditional approach is to expand infrastructure, but this can be expensive, take years from planning to realization, and be politically frought. In this paper we discuss the concept of “infostructures” as cost and time-effective complementary approaches that leverage digital layers and urban digital media channels of the cityscape. Through four case studies and their analysis we illustrate opportunities for addressing different types of “unhealthy” situations with digital technologies.     

Simulating the impacts of policy scenarios on the sustainability performance of infrastructure projects

Sustainable development principles have been implemented in various sectors including the construction industry since it was published in the Brundtland Commission Report in 1987. In line with this development, implementation of infrastructure construction projects has been given particular attention as they have more significant impacts on the environment, society and economy. It is considered that proper development and operation of infrastructure projects such as highways can contribute significantly to the mission of sustainable development. However, there is little existing work to provide appropriate methods to assess the sustainability performance of infrastructure projects. The study described in this paper introduces a simulation model, using system dynamics principle, to evaluate the sustainability performance of highway infrastructure projects during the construction and operation stage. The study introduces the indicators which measure the sustainability performance of highway projects and identifies the dynamic factors affecting indicator performance by referring to the relevant feasibility studies of highway projects. A real highway project is presented to demonstrate the application of the simulation model in evaluating the sustainability performance of the project. The case study is used to explore the solutions for improving those poor sustainability performance areas through policy scenarios.     

Cost comparison of infrastructure on greenfield and infill sites

Planning policy in most Australian capital cities aims to divert development from the fringe into established inner urban areas. A fundamental logic underlying this policy of land recycling is that State and Local governments are challenged financially to provide appropriate standards of infrastructure and services in greenfield locations. This paper explores the range of infrastructure provision issues and seeks to identify the actual costs of provision in different locations. Three case studies in metropolitan Adelaide are used to explore the cost factors for developers and government. The study highlights the complexity of analysing the infrastructure cost of different developments which arises from variable record keeping and accounting practices. Nevertheless, the study is able to draw conclusions about the relative costs of infrastructure provision in different locations and reinforces previous studies that have demonstrated the higher costs of infrastructure on the fringe as opposed to infill. The estimated infrastructure costs for the infill development case study at Bowden are shown to be approximately one third that of both greenfield and renewal areas of the Playford Alive project on the urban fringe.