Gender,Internet and computer attitudes and experiences

It is widely assumed that participation by females on the Internet is hampered by their attitudes towards computers, which in turn is reflective of their attitudes towards new technology. Research generally supports that females have less overall experience with computers and are more likely than males to have negative attitudes towards computers. Although limited, research on Internet experiences and attitudes has found parallel gender differences, with females reporting lower levels of experience and more negative attitudes. This paper explores whether Internet and computer experiences, skills and attitudes are related, using evidence from two studies of incoming college students, in 1989/90 and 1997. There were significant gender differences in many computer experiences and attitudes of incoming students in 1989/90. Males were more experienced with computers, more likely to have taken high school courses requiring computer use, and reported higher skill levels in applications such as programming, games and graphics than females. By 1997, incoming students were more experienced with using a computer than the earlier students. However, gender differences in computer experience and skill levels had diminished in some areas. The 1997 survey also assessed Internet experiences, skills, competence and comfort. Students had more exposure to computers than to the Internet. Males were more experienced and reported higher skill levels with the Internet than females, with the exception of e-mail. The overall competency and comfort level for students in 1997 was significantly higher for computers than for the Internet; 19% of the students did not feel competent and/or comfortable with the computer compared to 36% with the Internet, with females reporting higher levels of incompetence and discomfort for both. Competence and comfort levels with the Internet and computers were highly intercorrelated, and both predicted Internet skills and experiences.     

Computer anxiety and attitudes among undergraduate students in Greece

This study attempts to give an insight to the computer anxiety levels and attitudes toward computers of the students of the Library and Information Systems (LIS) Department of Technological Educational Institute (TEI) of Thessaloniki using Computer Anxiety Rating Scale (CARS) and Computer Attitudes Scale (CAS). Both constructs were examined using explanatory factor analysis. Internal consistency of the factors of each construct was satisfactory. It was found that there was a strong negative relationship between the two concepts. Canonical correlation analysis demonstrated that anxiety explains more variance of the attitudes than vice versa. Another finding was that most of LIS students were not anxious toward computers and with positive attitudes. Factors correlated negatively with anxiety and positively with attitudes, were knowledge of English language, PC ownership, access of students to computers at younger ages, perceived advanced computer skills and computer experience as reflected by frequency of computer use.     

An examination of gender differences in the determinants of computer anxiety and attitudes toward microcomputers among managers

The study examined the determinants of computer anxiety and attitudes toward microcomputers among 166 managers employed in a variety of organizations. Results indicated that men and women in managerial positions do not differ in the level of computer anxiety reported, and are very similar in their attitudes toward microcomputers. However, gender differences were found in the pattern of relationships of demographic and personality variables with computer anxiety and microcomputer attitudes. For men, education and intuition-sensing were negatively related to computer anxiety, while age, external locus of control, and math anxiety were associated with heightened computer anxiety. In contrast, demographic and personality variables were unrelated to computer anxiety among women. Computer anxiety was the strongest predictor of attitudes toward microcomputers among both men and women. Among women, however, the feeling-thinking dimension of cognitive style, and math anxiety were additional determinants of microcomputer attitudes.     

How instruction influences attitudes of college men and women towards computers

The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of micro-computer training on attitudes toward computers. One hundred and ninety-four undergraduate and graduate students participated; 107 took a microcomputer training course, while the remaining 87 received no computer training. Students in both conditions completed the Computer Attitude Scale (Loyd & Loyd, 1985) during the first and final weeks of a 16-week semester. Results from a series of multivariate and univariate analyses indicated that (a) students who received microcomputer training demonstrated less anxiety, more confidence, and more interest in using computers than students who received no training; (b) there were no significant gender differences in attitudes at the beginning or end of the study; and (c) attitudes toward computers improved significantly over time with computer training but did not change without training. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Computer anxiety and attitudes towards microcomputer use

Survey data gathered from 187 participants were used to examine the relationship between demographic variables, computer training and experience, management support and system quality and computer anxiety, and attitudes toward microcomputers. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that the quality of the computer-based information system which represents the interface and the interaction between the participants and the system has a strong positive effect on attitudes toward microcomputers, and a significant reduction on computer anxiety. Computer training contributes strongly to decrease in computer anxiety and has an indirect effect on attitudes toward microcomputers. However, computer experience and management support were found to affect the attitudes toward microcomputers directly. Among the demographic variables, gender was the only one which correlated highly with computer anxiety. Implications for the design of information and decision support systems and future research are discussed.     

Gender differences and similarities in attitudes toward computers

Gender differences among university students in attitudes toward and involvement with computers were examined. Males were found to have taken more computer science courses, to be more knowledgeable about computer languages, to be more likely to want to major in computer science, and to have played video games more than females. There were no gender differences in reported nonvideo-game computer use or in exposure to computers in noncomputer science courses. Males and females did not differ on their reported personal interest in and enjoyment of computers. Consistent with previous research, however, males reported more comfort and confidence with computers and more positive attitudes toward mathematics than did females. Women believed more strongly than men that females should learn and are as capable of learning about computers and science as are males. It appears that these university women were as intrigued by computers as the men were. However, they were apparently somewhat inhibited from the pursuit of specialized training and careers in computer science. This inhibition may be linked to their anxiety about their own skills and to the communication, by male peers, of the attitude that women are less capable than men of learning about computers.     

Comparing attitudes towards computer usage by undergraduates from 1986 to 2005

The importance and use of computers has increased dramatically over the last two decades. The Attitudes Towards Computer Usage Scale (ATCUS) was developed in 1986 [Popovich, P. M., Hyde, K. R., Zakrajsek, T., & Blumer, C. (1987). The development of the attitudes toward computer usage scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 47, 261–269.] and used in a variety of settings over the years. In order to examine how computer attitudes have changed from 1986 to 2005, the ATCUS was given to 254 male and female current undergraduate students. When comparing the 1986 with 2005 results, the amount of time spent using a computer was still positively related to computer attitudes; however, the number of college computer courses was not. There is no longer a significant relationship among any of the factors with college computer courses. Males and females no longer significantly differ in their attitudes toward computers, number of college computer courses, amount of time spent using computers, or degree of self-reported computer anxiety. Implications are discussed.     

Occupational differences in computer-related anxiety: implications for the implementation of a computerized patient management information system

The present investigation was concerned with the implementation of an information system within a health care setting. A large number of staff required training on a new patient management information system (MIS). The aim of this study was to assess occupational differences on a number of psychological variables associated with MIS success. Computer anxiety was of primary concern due to its relationship to avoidance of computers. A total of 175 questionnaires were distributed, with 103 questionnaires being completed and returned for analysis (61.1%). It was found that clerical/administrative staff had significantly higher self-efficacy regarding computer use and more experience with computers. The nursing group experienced significantly more, computer anxiety, negative attitudes, and negative expectations than the clerical group. Self-efficacy was found to be the best predictor of computer related anxiety. The results have implications for MIS implementation strategies particularly in the areas of training and resource allocation.     

A contingency model of computer and Internet self-efficacy

Information system researchers have recently devoted considerable attention to the concept of computer self-efficacy in order to understand computer user behavior and system use. This article reports on the development and examination of a contingency model of computer and Internet self-efficacy. User attitude and computer anxiety were assumed to influence the development of computer and Internet self-efficacy. Measures of user attitude, computer anxiety, computer self-efficacy, and Internet self-efficacy were used in a university environment to collect 347 responses at both the beginning and end of an introductory computer course. Results suggested that training significantly improved computer and Internet self-efficacy. Respondents with ‘favorable’ attitudes toward computers improved their self-efficacy significantly more than respondents with ‘unfavorable’ attitudes. Respondents with ‘low’ computer anxiety improved their self-efficacy significantly more than respondents with ‘high’ computer anxiety. The interaction effect between attitude and anxiety was significant for computer self-efficacy scores but not for Internet self-efficacy scores. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Qualitative differences in computer experience,computer anxiety,and students' use of computers: A path model

Biographical information (age and gender) was obtained on 180 first year psychology students along with self-report measures relating to computer use. The measures were: age of initial introduction to computers; qualitative aspects of early computer experience (how relaxed and unpressured the experience was and the extent to which the individual had felt ‘in control’ and competent during the experience); level of computer anxiety; current and anticipated future frequency of use of computers. A path model linking the above variables was proposed and tested. Apart from gender, all of the predictor variables exerted direct and/or indirect influences on use made (and expected to be made) of computers. In particular, an early introduction to computers was generally associated with a more favourable quality of initial experience, leading to lower anxiety and greater readiness of students to use computers.     

Qualitative differences in computer experience, computer anxiety, and students' use of computers: A path model

Biographical information (age and gender) was obtained on 180 first year psychology students along with self-report measures relating to computer use. The measures were: age of initial introduction to computers; qualitative aspects of early computer experience (how relaxed and unpressured the experience was and the extent to which the individual had felt ‘in control’ and competent during the experience); level of computer anxiety; current and anticipated future frequency of use of computers. A path model linking the above variables was proposed and tested. Apart from gender, all of the predictor variables exerted direct and/or indirect influences on use made (and expected to be made) of computers. In particular, an early introduction to computers was generally associated with a more favourable quality of initial experience, leading to lower anxiety and greater readiness of students to use computers.     

A cross-cultural comparison of gender differences in computer attitudes and anxieties: the United Kingdom and Hong Kong

This study examined the computer attitudes and anxieties of 207 United Kingdom nationals and 286 Hong Kong nationals to determine the factorial structure for each sample and any gender differences. Both samples share a comparable educational environment and level of technological sophistication. The United Kingdom sample, however, reported more computer-related experience, less anxiety and more positive attitudes. There was a large degree of overlap between the factorial structure for computer anxiety and attitudes between the two samples which is consistent with previous research. For the United Kingdom sample, there were no gender differences in computer anxiety but males held more positive attitudes than females. For the Hong Kong sample, there were no gender differences in computer attitudes but males reported greater computer anxiety than females. This is the first sample in which males have been found to be more computer anxious than females, despite Hong Kong males reporting more computer experience than females. An item-by-item analysis identifies Hong Kong males are more anxious when anticipating using computers (rather than when actually using computers).     

Computer self-efficacy, training effectiveness and user attitudes: an empirical study

Using 414 business undergraduates at two universities in the US, a 28-item computer self-efficacy scale is validated and used to examine the relationship between (a) training and computer self-efficacy and (b) user attitudes and computer self-efficacy. Survey responses were collected both at the beginning and end of an introductory computer course. A principal factor analysis of the computer self-efficacy scale supported a conceptually meaningful four-factor solution with high alpha reliabilities. Results suggest that training significantly improved the computer self-efficacy of males and females in this study for all factors. Training programs seemed more effective for male and female respondents with positive attitudes toward computers. Training programs seemed less effective for respondents with negative attitudes toward computers. Implications of these findings are discussed and research opportunities described.     

Assessing the computer attitudes of students: An Asian perspective

Research has found that computer attitudes play a key role in influencing the extent to which students accept the computer as a learning tool and in determining the likelihood that computer will be used in the future for learning and study. A sample of 183 students reported their computer attitudes using a Likert-type questionnaire with three subscales, computer importance, computer enjoyment, and computer anxiety. One-way MANOVA revealed no significant differences in computer attitudes by gender although male students reported more positive towards the computer than female students. There were significant differences between students who own computers at home and those who do not and students who own a computer at home also reported a lower level of computer anxiety compared to those who do not.     

Gender influences on children’s computer attitudes and cognitions

The relative ‘explosion’ of computerised technology in recent years has been accompanied by a wealth of psychological research that has indicated a mixed response of attitudes to the now ubiquitous computer. Whilst many people hold positive attitudes about computers, many individuals express serious concerns and have been labelled ‘technophobic’. This study considers whether technophobia is a transitory phenomenon by assessing the computer attitudes and cognitions of 104 children aged 11 and 12 via self-report questionnaires. Contrary to previous reports (e.g. Rosen & Weil, 1992, Measuring technophobia: a manual for the administration and scoring of the computer anxiety rating scale (Form C), the computer thoughts survey (Form C) and the general attitudes towards computers scale (Form C). Version 1.1. California State University) the prevalence of technophobia was found to be low. Similarly the impact of psychological gender (sex and sex-role) was assessed and found, in general, not to significantly influence attitudes or cognitions towards computers. This does not support the notion that a technological gender gap is developing, nor the literature that suggests males hold more positive attitudes and cognitions than females. However, whilst in this instance it appears that the computer is viewed positively, it is tentatively suggested that looking to the future, technophobia will not be problematic.     

Changing teachers,changing students? The impact of a teacher-focused intervention on students' computer usage,attitudes, and anxiety

An important purpose of integrating computer use into everyday classroom instruction is to help students approach technology as a learning tool. Effective classroom integration is dependent not only on access to computers but also teachers' implementation of computing into learning. Successful implementation, in turn, depends largely on teachers' beliefs about classroom computing. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of a teacher-focused technology intervention on students' attitudes toward and use of computers as learning tools. Teachers' attitudes, anxiety, and classroom computer use are explored as mediators of this relationship. Data were collected during a technology intervention in fourth and fifth grade classrooms in an urban public school district. Results suggest that the technology intervention itself had a positive effect on students' attitudes toward and use of computers for educational purposes. There was no evidence, however, that teachers' use or attitudes had any mediating effect on this relationship. These results suggest that it is possible to increase students' attitudes toward computer use through intense interventions aimed at their teachers. Future research should further investigate the mechanisms through which this relationship exits.     

A survey of attitudes to,knowledge about and experience of computers

There is some concern that relatively few students in the U.K. elect to study computing and that this number is declining despite the high pay levels of computer staff and emphasis on computing in education. Variables known to be associated with the extent to which an individual is likely to make use of computers are background discipline, attitude to computers and IT, attitude to technology in general, experience of computers and gender. The present study investigates the relationships between these variables for 928 students at an institution of higher education. Subjects had been selected to fall into four discipline areas: COMP (computer/electronic studies), SCIENCE (science courses), HI-IT (non-science courses making heavy use of IT) and LOW-IT (non-science courses making relatively low use of IT). Results indicated that on entry to college, students in the COMP category had more experience with computers than students in other categories and that across all categories, except HI-IT, males had more experience with computers on entry than females. Students in the COMP category also had significantly more knowledge about computers than other students and across all categories males had more knowledge than females on entry. There were relatively minor differences in attitudes to computers and IT with COMP students being slightly more positive than students in the other categories, and there were no differences in attitudes to technology in general across the four categories. There were no consistent gender differences on the attitude variables. Results were discussed with relation to vocational choice and it was concluded that females on computer courses may, in general, be rather less interested in computers per se than their male peers.     

The impact of negative attitudes toward computers on employees' satisfaction and commitment within a small company

In order to examine the impact of negative attitudes toward computer usage, a survey was administered that measured attitudes toward computers, the level of job satisfaction in the work environment, and general attitudes toward the organization. Twenty-nine employees at a real estate office completed a 24-item survey during a regularly scheduled employee meeting. Attitudes toward computers were generally positive; however, about one third of the sample felt incompetent in their ability to use computers, and 21% said that they avoid using computers altogether. Results also indicated that feelings of frustration and confusion about the use of computers were associated with lower job satisfaction. While negative attitudes towards computers were related to one 's attitudes toward the job, these attitudes were unrelated to one's feeling toward the company. Thus, computerphobia may have a strong link to individual job satisfaction, with any consequence for overall attitudes toward the company operating through prolonged dissatisfaction with one's job.     

School children's attitudes towards computers as a function of gender, course subjects and availability of home computers

Abstract The attitudes of 328 British Secondary School children towards computers were examined in a cross-sectional survey. Measures of both general attitudes towards computers and affective reactions towards working with computers were examined in relation to the sex of the subject, courses studied (computer related/noncomputer related) and availability of a home computer. A differential pattern of results was observed. With respect to general attitudes towards computers, main effects were found for all three independent variables indicating that more favourable attitudes increased as a function of being male, doing computer courses and having a home computer. In contrast to this, affective reactions to working with computers was primarily related to doing computer courses, such that those doing computer courses reported more positive and less negative reactions. The practical and theoretical implications of these results are discussed.