CANDU with hydrogen

How Canada's successful CANDU (CANada Deuterium Uranium) nuclear power reactors would benefit from an emerging hydrogen-electric economy and vice versa is discussed with reference to the Combined Electrolysis Catalytic Exchange (CECE) process for recovering byproduct heavy water from electrolytic hydrogen. At the heart of this process is a hydrophobic, dispersed-platinum catalyst which has been under development at Chalk River for about a decade. Other potential applications of the CECE process are presented, including tritium recovery from both light and heavy water. Based on preliminary data and cost estimates, the net heavy water dollar credit appears to be at least comparable to the byproduct oxygen credit of electrolytic hydrogen. The potential for byproduct heavy water production from hydrogen in general, and from electrolytic hydrogen in particular, is discussed in relation to Canada's present primary heavy water production capacity.     

Canada’s program on nuclear hydrogen production and the thermochemical Cu–Cl cycle

This paper presents an overview of the status of Canada’s program on nuclear hydrogen production and the thermochemical copper–chlorine (Cu–Cl) cycle. Enabling technologies for the Cu–Cl cycle are being developed by a Canadian consortium, as part of the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) for hydrogen production with the next generation of nuclear reactors. Particular emphasis in this paper is given to hydrogen production with Canada’s Super-Critical Water Reactor, SCWR. Recent advances towards an integrated lab-scale Cu–Cl cycle are discussed, including experimentation, modeling, simulation, advanced materials, thermochemistry, safety, reliability and economics. In addition, electrolysis during off-peak hours, and the processes of integrating hydrogen plants with Canada’s nuclear plants are presented.     

Clean hydrogen production with the Cu-Cl cycle - Progress of international consortium, I: Experimental unit operations

Advancement of the thermochemical copper-chlorine (Cu-Cl) cycle for hydrogen production is reviewed and discussed in this paper. Individual unit operations and their linkage into an integrated cycle are being developed by a Canadian consortium, as part of the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) for hydrogen production with the next generation of nuclear reactors. This paper focuses on the consortium’s latest advances on the Cu-Cl cycle, particularly with respect to hydrogen production with Canada’s Generation IV reactor, called SCWR (Super-Critical Water Reactor). Other heat sources may also be utilized for the Cu-Cl cycle, such as solar energy or industrial waste heat. In this first of two companion papers, recent developments in Canada’s nuclear hydrogen program are reported, specifically unit operation experiments of the Cu-Cl cycle and system integration. The following second companion paper will present system modeling with Aspen Plus, corrosion resistant materials, thermochemistry, safety, and reliability aspects of the Cu-Cl cycle.     

Fossil fuels and Nigeria's energy situation by the year 2000

The contributions of fossil fuels (coal, gas, petroleum, and wood) to Nigeria's energy requirements are reviewed and their future potentials and those of other resources (manure, solar, and nuclear energy) in the year 2000 assessed.     

Energy consumption patterns in the Canadian and world economies The use of a ternary primary energy diagram

A new method is presented for showing the distribution of primary energy forms by use of the ternary diagram. An arbitrary division of energy sources into oil, other exhaustibles, and inexhaustibles (renewables sources and uranium) is made, but other choices may be made if desired. The ternary primary energy diagram is an effective means of showing important changes and characteristics of the energy system, both in terms of the historical record and to illustrate the routes available to reduce, for instance, petroleum dependence. Trends in the pattern of Canada's energy consumption are identified, and with the help of the ternary diagram, some options for energy policy are evaluated.     

Public attitudes to nuclear energy

The last decade has seen a marked increase in public concern about nuclear energy. As a consequence, it is now recognized that the future of nuclear energy will not only depend on technical and economic factors, but that public acceptability of this technology will play a crucial role in its long-term future. This paper summarizes trends in public reactions to nuclear power in various countries and discusses a number of studies on public beliefs and attitudes to nuclear power in general, and to the building of a nuclear power plant near to one's home. It is concluded that the qualitative aspects of the possible risks of nuclear energy play an important role in the public's perception of this technology. It is also clear, however, that differences in perception of the risks do not embrace all the relevant aspects of the public's assessment of nuclear energy. Public reaction is also related to more general beliefs and values, such as emphasis on economic versus social priorities, attitudes to technology and environmental concern.     

Iran's nuclear power programme revisited

Iran's new government has not yet made a final decision about the fate of that country's once ambitious nuclear power programme. If the programme is kept alive, it will be limited to the completion of at most one or two of the reactors that were already well underway when the revolution broke out. The author traces the origins and growth of the Iranian nuclear power programme between 1974 and 1978, summarizes the principal economic, infrastructural, and political criticisms of the programme as originally planned, discusses the potential for greater use of natural gas as an alternative and, finally, recommends a long, detailed reassessment of Iran's energy options.     

Energy scenarios for New Zealand

Three scenarios for New Zealand's energy future have been researched. Each scenario has a theme which is used as a basis for calculation of energy demand in all sectors. The energy supply is worked out using a strategy which is also based on the theme. The themes tend to be an exaggeration of what is seen of three major thought streams present in our society today and are as follows:Continuation. Continuation of policies and trends which apply today; emphasis on economic growth measured in terms of per capital productivity; continued exploitation of the country's potential for agricultural and industrial development.Low New Zealand Pollution. Postulation of a society which sets out to minimise site-specific pollution especially from industry, power production, while still have comparatively high economic growth.Limited Growth. Economic growth rate reduced to zero by 2000; move to renewable sources for energy; concern for environmental degradation.The scenarios also provide a body of information on energy issues and discuss options which are significantly different from those being followed today. Of particular interest are the issues of liquid fuels, fossil fuels, nuclear energy and alternative technologies, as well as an indication of the range of energy demand under the three scenario themes.     

Heavy water as a valuable by-product of electrolytic hydrogen

A Combined Electrolysis Catalytic Exchange-Heavy Water Process (CECE-HWP) is being developed at Chalk River with the ultimate aim of producing by-product heavy water from electrolytic hydrogen streams although other earlier potential applications are also discussed. The gross heavy water dollar credit per GJ, based on the higher heating value of hydrogen, has been calculated as a function of the important variables: recovery, feed concentration, and price. Based on preliminary data and cost estimates, the net heavy water dollar credit has been estimated to be at least comparable to the by-product oxygen credit. The potential for by-product heavy water production from hydrogen in general, and from electrolytic hydrogen in particular, in Canada, the U.S.A., and the Western World is discussed in relation to Canada's present primary heavy water production capacity.     

Life Cycle Analysis of wind–fuel cell integrated system

After ratification of the Kyoto Protocol, Canada’s Kyoto greenhouse gas (GHG) emission target is 571 Mt of CO₂ equivalent emitted per year by 2010; however, if current emission trends continue, a figure of 809 Mt is projected by 2010 (Cote C. Basic of clean development mechanism—joint implementation and overview of CDM project cycle, 2003 regional workshop on CDM-JI, February 2003, Halifax). This underscores the need for additional reduction of 240 Mt. The Federal Government Action Plan 2000 aims to reduce this gap from 240 to 65 Mt (Cote C. Basic of clean development mechanism—joint implementation and overview of CDM project cycle, 2003 regional workshop on CDM-JI, February 2003, Halifax). In order to accomplish this goal, renewable energy use in all sectors will be required, and this type of energy is particularly applicable in power generation. Traditional power generation is a major source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions after industrial and transportation sectors (Environment Canada. Canada’s Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990–1998. Final submission to the UNFCCC Secretariat, 2002 [Available from: http://www.ec.gc.ca/climate/resources_reportes-e.html]. Although wind energy, solar power and other forms of renewable energy are non-GHG emitting in their operation, there are GHG emissions in their different stages of life cycle (i.e. material extraction, manufacturing, construction and transportation, etc.). These emissions must be accounted for in order to assess accurately their capacity to reduce GHG emission and meet Kyoto targets. The current trend in electricity generation is towards integrated energy systems. One such proposed system is the wind–fuel cell integrated system for remote communities. This paper presents a detailed Life Cycle Analysis of the wind–fuel cell integrated system for application in Newfoundland and Labrador.The study confirms that wind–fuel integrated system is a zero emission system while in operation. There are significant emissions of GHGs during the production of the various components (wind turbine, fuel cell and electrolyzer). However, the global warming potential (GWP) of wind-integrated system is far lower (at least by two orders of magnitude) than the conventional diesel system, presently used in remote communities.     

Supply of appropriate nuclear technology for the developing world: Small power reactors for electricity generation

A growing world population, expected to reach eleven thousand million people by the year 2050, implies a growing need for the expansion of energy conversion technology. Over 80% of the world's population growth is projected to be centred in the lesser developed countries (LDCs), that part of the world expected to experience the largest growth rates in energy consumption. Constraints on fossil fuels, such as oil, natural gas and coal, imply that other energy sources will be needed in large supply to fulfill LDC energy demands. This paper reviews the supply of small nuclear power plants (200 to 500 MWe electrical generating capacity) available on today's market, including the pre-fabricated designs of the United Kingdom's Rolls Royce Ltd and the French Alsthom-Atlantique Company. Also, the Russian VVER-440 conventionally built light-water reactor design is reviewed, including information on the Soviet Union's plans for expansion of its reactor-building capacity. A section of the paper also explores the characteristics of LDC electricity grids, reviewing methods available for incorporating larger plants into smaller grids as the Israelis are planning. Future trends in reactor supply and effects on proliferation rates are also discussed, reviewing the potential of the Indian 220 MWe pressurised heavy-water reactor, South Korean and Japanese potential for reactor exports in the Far East, and the Argentine-Brazilian nuclear programme in Latin America. This study suggests that small reactor designs for electrical power production and other applications, such as seawater desalination, can be made economical relative to diesel technology if traditional scaling laws can be altered by adopting and standardising a pre-fabricated nuclear power plant design. Also, economy can be gained if sufficient attention is concentrated on the design, construction and operating experience of suitably sized conventionally built reactor systems.     

The nuclear export policy of the Reagan administration

The Reagan Administration maintains the Carter Administration's objective of non-proliferation of nuclear weapons as being fundamental to US nuclear export policy. However, it sees the USA as having another important role to play in influencing the use of nuclear power and the trading of related goods and technologies in other countries. While the Administration believes its policies will prove beneficial to the USA, there is concern that trade considerations are being given priority over preventing the proliferation of nuclear weapons.     

Energy for development of the Philippines

Set against an expanding population and a rapidly developing agro-industrial economy, the Philippines demand for energy is forecast to grow at 7.5% annual rate in the next 25 years. At this pace, primary energy requirements towards the close of the century would have been 465 million barrels of oil equivalent, representing a six-fold increase over present consumption levels. Consonant with the state's self-reliant posture with respect to its energy supplies, this demand will have to be met as much as possible by indigenous sources. Accordingly, the Energy Plan outlined to the year 2000 targets the development and utilization of indigenous energy resources, particularly those which are of renewable and inexhaustible nature.The Energy Plan is based largely on assessed resource potentials of the country. With increased supply contributions from hydro, coal, nuclear, geothermal and other non-conventional sources of energy, the Plan envisions the reduction of Philippine oil dependency rate from the prevailing 95% to 72% in 1985 and 53% in 2000.Estimates of financial requirement to implement the plan indicates that for the next 10 years up to 1985, a total of US$5.4 B is needed. This corresponds to an average yearly requirement of US$520 M and is equivalent to 2.5% of average annual GNP. From 1985 to 2000, a total of US$19.7 B will be needed, or an annual requirement of US$1.3 B. This again takes up 2.5% of GNP. The physical and financial targets including the institutional framework of such a plan constitute the topics of discussion of this paper.     

Nuclear energy in France: An economic policy overview

Lack of domestic fossil fuel resources has forced France to pin its hopes on nuclear power. This paper describes the French nuclear programme, the structure of the nuclear industry, progress made and future objectives. Some cost estimates for nuclear power relative to other fuel sources are presented and the effects of the nuclear programme on France's import dependency considered.     

Nuclear power proliferation: Problems of international control

The nuclear industry is experiencing a multiple crisis in which economic, technical and ethical aspects are blended inextricably. Nuclear hardware costs have everywhere soared far beyond inflation in the last five years, largely as a result of delays in programme completion arising from problems of reactor and fuel cycle safety. Meanwhile, partly as a result of this cost escalation, there is widespread and growing doubt as to whether capital will be available to finance the electricity generating levels projected by the industry and by governments for the 1990s. The nuclear industry is now in trouble at every stage of the fuel cycle. The industry's difficulties have also revealed a lack of overall …- but particularly nuclear …- energy strategy at either national or international levels, and a lack of will to create regulations and institutional machinery at either of these levels which might reassure both concerned publics and the energy industries themselves. This paper appraises some of the present limitations of international institutions in achieving control and management of nuclear power.     

Emerging trends in nuclear energy

Nuclear energy is faltering in many places — especially in the USA: should we write it off as the bubble that burst? The author sees underlying trends that justify a more optimistic view of nuclear energy's future — the continuing tendency for the electricity intensity of economic activity to rise while the total energy intensity falls; a consistently favourable price trend for electricity compared with energy prices generally — a trend that may become more favourable if his judgement that nuclear plants will turn out to be very long-lived is borne out by events; the substitution of electricity-based processes in industry for older processes; and the development of ultra-safe reactors which will remove once and for all the fears of accidents such as the one that occurred at Three Mile Island.     

Safety concept of nuclear cogeneration of hydrogen and electricity

There is a significant potential for nuclear combined heat and power (CHP) in quite a number of industries. The reactor concepts of the next generation would be capable to open up, in particular, the high temperature heat market where nuclear energy is applicable to the production processes of hydrogen (or liquid fuels) by steam reforming or water splitting. Due to the need to locate a nuclear facility near the hydrogen plant, an overall safety concept has to deal with the question of safety of the combined nuclear/industrial system by taking into account a qualitatively new class of events characterized by interacting influences. Specific requirements will be determined by such factors as the reactor type, the nature of the industrial process, the separation distances of the industrial facility and population centers from the nuclear plant, and prevailing public attitudes. Based on the Japanese concept of the GTHTR300C nuclear reactor for electricity and hydrogen cogeneration, theoretical studies were conducted on the release, dispersive transport, and explosion of a hydrogen cloud in the atmosphere for the sake of assessing the required minimum separation distance to avoid any risk to the nuclear plant's safety systems. In the case of sulfur-iodine water splitting, the accidental release of process intermediates including large amounts of sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, and sulfuric acid need to be investigated as well to estimate the potential risk to nuclear installations like the operators' room and estimate appropriate separation distances against toxic gas propagation. Results of respective simulation studies will be presented.     

US energy policy — the continuing failure

The author analyses the failure of the USA to deal effectively with three related problems: OPEC's increasing political influence; continuing reliance on Middle East crude; and a mounting deficit on the USA's external account. The discussion centres on the serious problems facing President Carter's July 1979 energy plan. The various components of the plan are examined in terms of US domestic politics and in terms of the international oil supply-demand position. An explanation is offered as to why Mr Carter has failed and will continue to fail to reduce the USA's dependence on oil. It is concluded that in the present political climate Congress is unable to support long-term solutions to the oil supply problems which the author envisages for the late 1980s.     

Novel energy management method for suppressing fuel cell degradation in hydrogen and electric hybrid energy storage systems compensating renewable energy fluctuations

This research investigates an energy management method utilized in a hydrogen and electric hybrid energy storage system (HESS), which is utilized as an ancillary system for renewable energy electricity generation. To suppress the performance degradation of the fuel cell (FC), the newly proposed energy management method deals with main FC degradation causes, such as low humidification and frequent and rapid voltage changes. The entire HESS's performance is demonstrated using the proposed energy management method. In addition, a simulation is conducted to evaluate the proposed energy management method's performance in terms of both suppressing the FC's degradation and ensuring system efficiency. The results of the experiment and simulation show that the proposed energy management method can suppress the FC's harmful working states while maintaining high system efficiency.     

Energy for Japan's new industrial frontier

Systematic responses by the Japanese government and industry to the successive oil crises of the 1970s are yielding remarkable results; instead of the most vulnerable and technologically-dependent energy system in the world, Japanese industry is emerging as one of the world's most energy-efficient and a major source of the most advanced energy technologies. By the end of the century, if best available prognoses on fusion power technology prove close to accurate. Japan's energy industry will have assumed a technological leadership akin to that of its steel industry today. Significant energy conservation has been achieved by concerted efforts to promote less energy-intensive industries and by advances in technology and equipment for reducing energy consumption in key industriex. In 1980, the Japanese government set targets for the development of new energy sources for the coming decade, which, of realized, will contribute substantially to a three-fold increase in non-petroleum energy supply by 1990, and a further doubling of alternative energy supplies by the end of the century. By the year 2000, Japanese reliance on petroleum is expected to decline from 88% in 1977 to 74.9%.