Marketing energy efficiency: perceived benefits and barriers to home energy efficiency

Energy efficiency contributes significantly to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the associated mitigation of climate change. The uptake of energy efficiency measures in the residential sector requires significant effort on the part of homeowners or residents. Past research has revealed that cost savings and social interaction motivate energy efficiency behavior. This study expands on this research by examining the hypothesis that there are regional differences in what motivates individuals to implement home energy efficiency upgrades. Two surveys (N?=?320 and N?=?423) examine the perceived benefits of and barriers to undertaking home energy efficiency improvements in varying geographic regions across the USA and test marketing materials that target these benefits and barriers. The hypothesis that there are regional differences in perceptions of energy efficiency was confirmed. Cost savings were found to be the most important benefit to individuals across the country. Energy efficiency being a good investment is either the second or third most important benefit across all regions. Increased comfort is the last of the top three most important benefits to those in the South and Midwest, while those in the Northeast demonstrated interest in the increase in home retail value associated with energy efficiency, and those in the West found the environmental benefits to be important. High costs of energy efficiency improvements were found to be the most commonly perceived barrier. Reported likelihood to enroll in a home energy efficiency program offered by one’s employer was predicted by perceived likelihood that coworkers would enroll, income level, and personal opinions about the importance of energy efficiency.     

The dynamics of integrated compressed air renewable energy systems

An integrated compressed air renewable energy system is defined here as one which harvests renewable energy directly in the form of compressed air and later converts that to the form of electrical power for transmission. There are two main motivations for considering such systems: firstly the lifetime cost per kW h exported has the potential to be substantially lower than the lifetime cost per kW h of a system generating electricity directly. Secondly these systems offer the intrinsic capability to store large amounts of energy in a very cost effective way. The only marginal costs associated with energy storage are those connected with providing some means for storing the compressed air and some means for managing heat. This paper describes an approach to simulating the performance of such systems including a controller to determine how much power to generate at a given time and it explains an appropriate rationale for the design of that controller. The simulations conducted indicate three remarkable performance measures. Specifically: (a) the marginal loss of energy associated with passing some energy through storage may be below 15% even with energy residency times in the order of months, (b) the marginal increase in total output electrical energy arising from integrating some solar heat capture can be as high as 60% of the captured solar heat for solar heat inputs up to 5% of total mechanical power and (c) the average value of the total power output may easily be raised by over 30% if power values continue to fluctuate at rates exhibited today and if the capacity for expansion-generation matches the peak input power of the primary (mechanical) energy harvesters.     

Conceptual design of compressed air energy storage electric power systems

Conceptual design studies have been conducted to identify Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) systems which are technically feasible and potentially attractive for future electric utility load-levelling applications. The CAES concept consists of compressing air during off-peak periods and storing it in underground facilities for later use. During peak-load periods the air would be withdrawn, heated by recuperation and combustion and expanded through turbines to generate power. By using off-peak electricity for compression and stored air for peak-load generation, the resulting oil consumption would be about 40 per cent of that consumed by conventional gas-turbine peaking plants. The turbomachinery requirements for this type of system could be met using existing equipment with relatively modest modifications. Although the study discussed herein focused on the storage of air in hydraulically compensated, mined, hard-rock caverns, the compressed air could also be stored in underground aquifers or leached-out salt cavities. Conventional underground excavation technology could be used to construct these storage caverns. A geological survey of the north-central and north-east regions of the United States indicated that sufficient siting opportunities exist such that a prudently designed CAES plant should have little long-term adverse impact on the environment. The competitive position of CAES relative to conventional generation alternatives is highly dependent on utility-specific factors. The cost of electric energy from CAES is generally competitive with costs from conventional peak-shaving systems such as gas turbines and will improve as low-cost off-peak energy from nuclear plants becomes available.     

Potential economic and social benefits of promoting energy efficiency measures in Nigeria

The paper discusses with lucid examples the potential economic and social benefits of promoting energy efficiency measures at the industrial, institutional, and domestic levels in Nigeria. It draws attention to the development of energy efficiency market as a means to meet the ever increasing demand for energy services in Nigeria. Energy saving opportunities and high investment returns in the replacement of incandescent lamps with compact fluorescent lamps and light-emitting diodes are highlighted. The need for appliance standardization and exploitation of the synergy between energy efficiency and renewable energy systems was pointed out. Equally highlighted are some of the perceived barriers to energy efficiency initiatives in Nigeria. The urgent need for public awareness creation, institutional strengthening, and partnership with international agencies for sustainable energy efficiency promotion measures in Nigeria is stressed.     

Investigation of energy saving potentials in T-junction and elbow in compressed air systems

In recent times, the applications of numerical methods are gaining momentum to carry out critical analysis to identify electrical energy and related emission saving potential on real-time application. The chosen specific area of the current work is the simulation of compressed airflow through pipes. The pressure gradient across compressed air pipe junction was simulated, and the result showed that the minimum pressure drop occurs when a branch line is taken at an angle of 46° with horizontal from the main pipe against the conventional T branch. In case of elbow, 150-mm fillet radius gave minimum pressure drop against 90° elbow. The CFD analysis carried out on T and elbow of compressed air pipe network with various inlet air pressures of 4 × 10⁵, 6 × 10⁵, and 8 × 10⁵ Pa showed that a no. of redesigned junction geometry, which is 5000, can reduce compressor electricity consumption by 127.14 MWh per annum and CO₂ emission by 37.31 t per annum.     

Energy efficiency in the food retail sector: barriers,drivers and acceptable policies

The objectives of this research are to examine empirically the drivers and barriers to energy efficiency measures in an important energy-using sector, namely, the food retail sector, and to gain an understanding of more effective energy efficiency policies in this sector. Although food retailers consume a significant amount of energy due to the specialised needs of stores, there has been little research on the barriers and drivers of energy efficiency measures in this sector. A survey of small food retailers was carried out to understand attitudes to energy efficiency measures and to examine the acceptability of different energy efficiency policy options. In addition, external stakeholders were consulted in order to validate and contextualise the results of the survey. We find that there is a complementary relationship between energy efficiency barriers and drivers for food retailers and that it is remarkably coherent. We identify policies, such as subsidies and support for ESCOs, that exploit both the complementarities between barriers and drivers and are acceptable to food retailers also. This methodology should help identify and design more effective policies to deliver energy efficiency improvements in the food retail and other services subsectors.     

Resource of energy efficiency in Russia: scale, costs, and benefits

This paper considers Russian economy-wide energy efficiency potential by sectors and energy carriers. The assessment shows that Russian technical energy efficiency potential exceeds 45% of 2005 primary energy consumption or 294 mtoe (excluding associated gas flaring). This is about the annual primary energy consumption in France, the UK, or Ukraine, half of that in Japan, and over 2% of the global primary energy consumption. Related CO₂ emission reduction potential is 50% of the Russian 2005 emission. Special attention is given to methodological issues in aggregating potentials identified in final energy use and to the evaluation of indirect energy efficiency gains. This study found that the energy efficiency potential doubles, if associated reduction of energy use, as well as technology progress, in energy production and transformation are accounted for. Cost curves for energy efficiency improvements were developed using the incremental cost approach to identify the cost-effective part of the potential.     

The threshold effects of energy efficiency on the elasticity of substitution between energy and non-energy factors

Considerable efforts have been made to estimate the relationship between energy and non-energy inputs in the production process. However, it remains controversial whether energy and non-energy inputs are complements or substitutes. Empirical analysis is conflicting on this issue. This study seeks to explore an alternative way to explain these conflicting results by examining the issue from the perspective of energy efficiency. This study is based on time series data for capital, labor, and energy from 28 Chinese provinces, covering 1985 to 2012. The results show that capital and energy are substitutes in all of the provinces, whereas labor and energy are complements in most of the provinces. Using the threshold effect model, we discover evidence of a threshold point based on the amount of energy efficiency activity in a province. This point separates the substitution behavior of provinces between energy and non-energy inputs. Low-energy efficiency provinces do not substitute as readily as high-energy efficiency provinces. The findings imply that the energy-saving technologies should be applied in provinces with comparatively higher energy intensity because they have more energy conservation potential.     

State-level benefits of energy efficiency

This paper describes benefits attributable to state-level energy efficiency programs. Nationwide, state-level energy efficiency programs have targeted all sectors of the economy and have employed a wide range of methods to promote energy efficiency. Standard residential and industrial programs typically identify between 20% and 30% energy savings in homes and plants, respectively. Over a 20-year period of time, an average state that aggressively pursues even a limited array of energy efficiency programs can potentially reduce total state energy use by as much as 20%. Well-designed energy efficiency programs can be expected to help overcome numerous barriers to the market penetration of energy efficient technologies and accelerate the market penetration of the technologies. Energy efficiency programs are cost-effective; typical benefit–cost ratios exceed 3:1 and are much higher when non-energy and macroeconomic benefits are included. Indeed, energy efficiency and associated programs and investments can create significant numbers of new jobs and enhance state tax revenues. Several states have incorporated energy efficiency into their economic development programs. It should also be noted that increasing amounts of venture capital are being invested in the energy sector in general and in specific technologies like solar power in particular.     

The value of compressed air energy storage with wind in transmission-constrained electric power systems

In this work, we examine the potential advantages of co-locating wind and energy storage to increase transmission utilization and decrease transmission costs. Co-location of wind and storage decreases transmission requirements, but also decreases the economic value of energy storage compared to locating energy storage at the load. This represents a tradeoff which we examine to estimate the transmission costs required to justify moving storage from load-sited to wind-sited in three different locations in the United States. We examined compressed air energy storage (CAES) in three “wind by wire” scenarios with a variety of transmission and CAES sizes relative to a given amount of wind. In the sites and years evaluated, the optimal amount of transmission ranges from 60% to 100% of the wind farm rating, with the optimal amount of CAES equal to 0–35% of the wind farm rating, depending heavily on wind resource, value of electricity in the local market, and the cost of natural gas.     

The value of compressed air energy storage in energy and reserve markets

Storage devices can provide several grid services, however it is challenging to quantify the value of providing several services and to optimally allocate storage resources to maximize value. We develop a co-optimized Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) dispatch model to characterize the value of providing operating reserves in addition to energy arbitrage in several U.S. markets. We use the model to: (1) quantify the added value of providing operating reserves in addition to energy arbitrage; (2) evaluate the dynamic nature of optimally allocating storage resources into energy and reserve markets; and (3) quantify the sensitivity of CAES net revenues to several design and performance parameters. We find that conventional CAES systems could earn an additional $23 ± 10/kW-yr by providing operating reserves, and adiabatic CAES systems could earn an additional $28 ± 13/kW-yr. We find that arbitrage-only revenues are unlikely to support a CAES investment in most market locations, but the addition of reserve revenues could support a conventional CAES investment in several markets. Adiabatic CAES revenues are not likely to support an investment in most regions studied. Modifying CAES design and performance parameters primarily impacts arbitrage revenues, and optimizing CAES design will be nearly independent of dispatch strategy.     

Classification of drivers for industrial energy efficiency and their effect on the barriers affecting the investment decision-making process

Industrial energy efficiency represents a priority for European industrial competitiveness. Many studies offer contributions providing evidence of the existence of driving forces supporting the adoption of energy efficiency measures, but a structured approach to drivers for industrial energy efficiency is still lacking. Therefore, in the present study, we propose a definition of drivers, making emphasis on the industrial decision-maker perspective, that is needed for their classification here proposed. Focus is given to point out the difference between internal and external drivers, highlighting the major stakeholders responsible for their promotion. Drivers are further categorized into: regulatory, economic, informative, and vocational training. Moreover, we propose a framework describing the effect of drivers on barriers in the decision-making process, as well as a preliminary identification of the major stakeholders to promote drivers. The study opens several opportunities for further research in the area of industrial energy efficiency.     

Design of optimum compressed air energy-storage systems

Compressed air energy storage (CAES) power systems are being considered by electric utilities for load-leveling application. Their economic benefit and the extent of premium fuel conservation is dependent on their design. An optimum design approach for CAES is presented in this paper. It is based on decomposition of the overall CAES plant/utility grid system into three partially-decoupled sybsystems. Technical and economic models of the subsystems are used in a constrained optimization procedure. The constraints are imposed by the physical characteristics of the subsystems, by interaction among the subsystems and by the interfacing requirements imposed by the utility.To illustrate the concepts, models for the system comprising the compressor train, piping, and an aquifer reservoir have been used in the optimization procedure. Results from these studies show that substantial reductions in capital cost and total operating cost can be achieved using optimization techniques.     

Organizational human factors as barriers to energy efficiency in electrical motors systems in industry

This paper presents a study accomplished in the State of Parana in Southern Brazil, aiming at verifying the correlation between organizational human factors (OHF) and the level of energy losses in organizations. The purpose is to subsidize the formularization of institutional policies in organizations to improve the energy efficiency in the productive sector. The research was carried out in ten industries of the following sectors: pulp and paper; food; wood and chemical products. The losses of electric energy were determined in motor systems with the aid of a mathematical model and the evaluation of 27 OHF identified in the literature review was made with the supervisors in the industries by means of a structurized questionnaire. Seven OHF had presented significant correlation with energy losses and six of them are inversely proportional to the losses, in accordance with linear regression analysis. The inversely proportional factors to the losses also with significant correlation are considered determinative OHF and constitute barriers for energy efficiency in organizations. These barriers are linked with the following organizational areas: management system; education of employees; strategical vision. The study recommends the implementation of the determinative OHF in organizations as a way to transpose the human barriers for energy efficiency.     

Barriers to and driving forces for energy efficiency in the non-energy intensive manufacturing industry in Sweden

The manufacturing industry is facing tougher competition which increases the demand to implement cost-effective energy efficiency measures. However, studies have indicated that obvious cost-efficient measures are not always undertaken. This is explained by the existence of barriers to energy efficiency. The aim of this study is to investigate the existence and importance of different barriers to the implementation of energy efficiency measures in the Swedish non-energy intensive manufacturing industry. Results from this study highlight a number of factors that inhibit the degree of implementation, such as the cost and risk associated with production disruptions, lack of time and other priorities, lack of sub-metering in larger organizations, etc. The study also finds a number of drivers, such as the existence of people with real ambition and a long-term energy strategy at site level.     

Chinese regional industrial energy efficiency evaluation based on a DEA model of fixing non-energy inputs

Data envelopment analysis (DEA) has recently become a popular method in measuring energy efficiency at the macro-economy level. However, previous studies are limited in that they failed to consider the issues of undesirable outputs and minimisation of energy consumption. Thus, this study considers both factors in measuring Chinese industrial energy efficiency and investigates the maximum energy-saving potential in 28 administrative regions in China. The results show that industries in the east area have the best average energy efficiency for the period 2000–2006, followed by the central area. Further, after comparing the industrial energy overall efficiency, pure technical efficiency (IEPTE), and scale efficiency of the 28 administrative regions examined, the study finds that in most regions of this study, the two main reasons causing the wastage of a large amount of energy during the industrial production process are that the industrial structure of most regions still relies on the massive use of energy in order to support the industrial-based economy and the IEPTE is too low. Based on these findings, this paper correspondingly proposes some policies to improve regional industrial energy efficiency.     

Regulating district heating in Romania: Legislative challenges and energy efficiency barriers

Many states in Eastern and Central Europe (ECE) possess extensive district heating (DH) networks that were constructed during the days of communist rule in order to provide a universally accessible energy service that supported Soviet development policies. But the post-communist transition was marked by the exacerbation of the sector’s numerous technical, economic, regulatory and environmental problems, accompanied by its abandonment in favour of alternative methods of domestic heating. Recent efforts to increase the use of DH in ECE as a result of environmental and energy security concerns have taken place in an absence of critical, context-sensitive research.     

Modelling energy and non-energy substitution: A brief survey of elasticities

Estimating the degree of substitution between energy and non-energy inputs is the key for any evaluation of environmental and energy policies. Yet, given the variety of substitution elasticities, the central question arises as to which measure would be most appropriate. Apparently, Allen's elasticities of substitution have been the most-used measures in applied production analysis. In line with Frondel (2004), this paper argues that cross-price elasticities are preferable for many practical purposes. This conclusion is based on a survey of classical substitution measures, such as those from Allen, Morishima, and McFadden. The survey highlights the fact that cross-price elasticities are their essential ingredients.     

Temperature and pressure variations within compressed air energy storage caverns

In the present work, the thermodynamic response of underground cavern reservoirs to charge/discharge cycles of compressed air energy storage (CAES) plants was studied. During a CAES plant operation, the cyclical air injection and withdrawal produce temperature and pressure fluctuations within the storage cavern. Predictions of these fluctuations are required for proper cavern design and for the selection of appropriate turbo-machinery. Based on the mass and energy conservation equations, numerical and approximate analytical solutions were derived for the air cavern temperature and pressure variations. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to identify the dominant parameters that affect the storage temperature and pressure fluctuations and the required storage volume. The heat transfer at the cavern walls was found to highly affect the air temperature and pressure variations as compared to adiabatic conditions. In essence, heat transfer reduces the temperature and pressure fluctuations during cavern charge and discharge and effectively leads to a higher storage capacity. Additionally, for realistic conditions, in each cycle, few percents of the injected energy are lost by conduction into the rocks. The principal thermal property that governs the heat transfer process is the rock effusivity. To reduce the required storage volume preference must be given to sites of rocks that have the largest thermal effusivity. Lower injected air temperatures also reduce the required storage volume, but increase the cooling costs. The injected temperature can also be used to control the cycle temperature extreme limits. It is evident from the results that the storage pressure ratio has a dominant effect on the required storage volume and should preferably range between 1.2 and 1.8.     

Environmental benefits of energy efficiency and renewable energy in Saudi Arabia's electric sector

This paper provides an evaluation of the potential environmental impacts of electric system expansion in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Environmental concerns are important to consider because they represent costs to society that are not typically reflected in the price that consumers pay for electricity. In past analyses of electric expansion options in Saudi Arabia, the tendency has been to stress the direct financial costs of expanding electricity generation, transmission, and distribution infrastructure without characterizing the environment impacts of building and operating the expanded electricity system in monetary terms. Emerging national and global environmental concerns, however, suggest that an expansion of the methods traditionally used for electricity resource planning and selection to include environmental considerations would greatly benefit the Kingdom. The criteria by which resource plans are evaluated can readily be broadened to address environmental and other concerns. As part of an illustrative Integrated Resource Planning (IRP) effort undertaken by a team of Saudi utility planners and international consultants, an expanded IRP framework was used to assess the environmental costs and benefits of various approaches to meeting electricity demand projections in Saudi Arabia. The results show that making use of renewable energy and energy efficiency resources to provide energy services to the electricity consumers of Saudi Arabia can provide significant environmental benefits for the Kingdom.