Voluntary control of human heart rate: Effect on reaction to aversive stimulation: A replication and extension.

In anticipation of receiving painful stimuli, 20 female Ss learned to regulate their heart rate (HR) when provided with meter biofeedback and monetary bonuses for HR changes and instructions to increase or decrease their rate. Voluntary slowing of HR was associated with a relative reduction in perceived aversiveness of the stimuli, particularly in those Ss who scored high on a cardiac-awareness questionnaire (i.e., reported experiencing cardiac reactions to fear situations in daily life). These fingings replicate and extend previous findings by the authors (see record 1974-31631-001) on HR self-regulation, perception of aversive stimulation, and individual differences in cardiac awareness. They also provide further support for the hypothesis that biofeedback training for relevant physiological responses may serve as a behavioral strategy for changing anxiety and fear reactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive desensitization and avoidance behavior: A reevaluation.

Attempted to partially replicate and extend a study by S. Valins and A. Ray (see record 1968-04107-001) on the effects of false heart rate feedback on avoidance behavior. In the previous study, Ss reporting a fear of snakes saw slides of snakes while hearing either meaningless sounds or bogus heart rate feedback indicating they were not afraid of snakes. The present study with 30 female undergraduates replicated these conditions while including a no-treatment control and a group of Ss led to believe that snakes did affect them. Actual heart rate was monitored during the sessions and posttreatment interviews were conducted to more fully assess Ss' reactions. Analyses failed to reveal significant between-group differences on any of the outcome indices of fear. This was attributed to the apparent failure of experimental Ss to reevaluate their fear on the basis of their heart rate feedback. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fear behavior, fear imagery, and the psychophysiology of emotion: The problem of affective response integration.

Exp I compared the psychophysiological reactions of 25 Ss with 2 fears, focal phobia and social-performance anxiety. Ss were determined by questionnaire (e.g., Differential Personality Questionnaire, Fenz-Epstein Anxiety Scale) and interview to be at the high extreme of their respective fear reference groups. Each group was exposed to both its own and the other group's primary fear stress (i.e., a snake-exposure test and a public speaking performance). These same Ss were also instructed to imagine both types of fear situations as well as control scenes. Results indicate a different psychophysiological response for the 2 fear groups across the 2 fear contents. Thus, snake-phobic Ss showed greater arousal when exposed to a live snake than did socially anxious Ss. Despite significantly greater verbal reports of fear and arousal by socially anxious Ss, both fear groups showed a similar marked increase in physiological arousal during speech performance. Neither group generated a significant physiological reaction to either fear content during imagery assessment. Exp II examined emotional imagery with 40 undergraduates from the same 2 fear populations. An imagery pretraining program, based on the reinforcement of verbal report of somatic response content in imagery, led to a significant visceral arousal response during fear imagery. Response-trained Ss showed a pattern of heart rate change during imagery that varied between Ss and fear contents. Response-trained Ss also showed relatively greater concordance between verbal and visceral measures than did untrained Ss. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of stimulus and environmental familiarity on visual imprinting in newly hatched ducklings.

Reports 2 experiments with 18 Khaki Campbell ducklings 17 hrs old which attempted to determine whether the development of familiarity with a particular source of visual stimulation was a sufficient condition for Ss to restrict their emission of filial behavior to that source only and begin to react fearfully to others. The reaction of Ss to familiar and novel imprinting stimuli in familiar and unfamiliar environments were assessed. Results indicate that familiarity alone is not sufficient for the emergence of fear. It is suggested that consideration of maturational as well as experiential factors is necessary for a full understanding of the Ss' reactions during imprinting. (28 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How affiliation affects stress in fear and anxiety situations.

Three experiments with 156 male undergraduates investigated why the presence of calm others reduces an individual's arousal in a fear situation but intensifies the arousal in an anxiety situation. In the fear situation, Ss anticipated receiving a physically painful stimulus; in the anxiety condition, Ss anticipated receiving an innocuous but embarrassing stimulus. Overall results indicate that (a) Ss stressed by a fear context only underwent stress reduction with a calm other present if he looked at the calm other; (b) the mere presence of a co-participant was stress-inducing for Ss stressed by an anxiety context; (c) the stressed-fear Ss directed attention outward toward impinging environmental stimuli, whereas the highly aroused anxiety Ss did not or could not do so. It is argued that stressed-fear Ss were able to model a calm co-participant because their attention was directed outward, whereas stressed-anxiety Ss did not model a calm co-participant because their attention was turned inward. Some ideas are offered as to how a calm model may be able to serve as a stress preventer for a person in an anxiety situation. (51 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of early social deprivation on emotionality in rats.

Following parturition, 95 male Holtzman albino rat pups were separated from their mothers and randomly assigned to rearing conditions (a) with mother and peers, (b) with mother without peers, (c) in incubators with peers, or (d) in incubators in isolation. At 65 days of age Ss were tested daily in an open field for 3 min. over 6 consecutive days. At 113 days of age, Ss were restrained and presented a mild auditory stimulus and subsequently a noxious shock stimulus while heart rate recordings were taken. Higher emotionality in maternally-deprived Ss was evidenced in longer emergence latencies, lower ambulatory scores, and higher urination frequencies in the open field. Maternally-deprived Ss also gave larger heart rate responses to auditory and shock stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of film modeling on the reduction of anxiety-related behaviors in individuals varying in level of previous experience in the stress situation.

Evaluated the influence of film preparation on 80 4–11 yr old children undergoing 3 dental sessions (prophylaxis, examination, and restorative treatment) with respect to (a) peer modeling vs demonstration of procedures and (b) amount of information. It was found that, by evaluating self-report (Children's Fear Survey Schedule), and behavioral (Behavior Profile Rating Scale), and visceral-arousal indices in a factorial design, Ss exposed to a peer-model videotape presentation immediately preceding their own restorative treatment exhibited fewer disruptive behaviors and reported less apprehension than those watching a videotaped demonstration without a peer model. The modeling film elicited less heart rate activity in the Ss than the demonstration. 4–6 yr old Ss had lower self-reports of fear after viewing a more complete synopsis of what to expect, whereas the 8–21 yr old Ss had the lowest report of fears after viewing the peer model receiving a local anesthetic and brief intraoral examination. Ss with previous treatment experience benefitted most from viewing the peer model undergoing the entire restorative procedure or a demonstration of the administration of local anesthetic in the absence of a peer model. Ss with no prior experience were sensitized by being shown the demonstration. It is concluded that the age and previous experience of the viewer are important factors in determining childrens' fear-related behaviors after exposure to preparatory stimuli. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional reactions to a political leader's expressive displays.

40 undergraduates viewed videotaped excerpts of happiness/reassurance, anger/threat, and fear/evasion expressive displays by US President Ronald Reagan. Within each display condition 1 excerpt was presented in image-only and 1 in sound-plus-image format. Emotional reactions were assessed by facial electromyography (EMG) from the brow and cheek regions, skin resistance, and heart rate. Following each excerpt, Ss also verbally reported the intensity of 8 emotions, including joy, interest, anger, and fear. Findings indicate that self-reported emotions were influenced strongly by both the expressive displays and prior attitude toward Reagan and by media condition. Facial EMG indicated smiling during happiness/reassurance displays and frowning during anger/threat and fear/evasion displays, especially during image-only presentations. Display effects were also found for skin resistance responses when the media conditions were combined and for heart rate changes in the sound-plus-image condition. Results indicate that expressive displays had a direct emotional impact on viewers and that prior attitudes influenced retrospective self-reports of emotion. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Observational conditioning of snake fear in unrelated rhesus monkeys.

Extended the findings of the present 2nd author et al (see record 1985-05872-001) in 2 experiments, using 4 rhesus monkeys as models and 18 rhesus monkeys as observers. In Exp I, 2 wild-reared Ss with a strong fear of snakes served as models, and 10 laboratory-reared Ss with no initial snake fear, who were acquainted with but not related to their models, served as observers. The observers showed asymptotic levels of fear in another context (the Sackett Self-Selection Circus) after only 8 min of watching their models behave fearfully in the presence of snake stimuli in the Wisconsin general test apparatus. In Exp II, 2 observers from Exp I who had acquired snake fear vicariously served as models for 8 other unrelated, and for the most part unacquainted, laboratory-reared Ss. Results are similar to those for Exp I, except that the level of acquired or maintained fear was slightly lower in Exp II. The differences in level of fear in the 2 experiments are discussed in relation to the possible effects of the model's age, dominance status, rearing history, and level of fear and to possible mechanisms underlying observational conditioning. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of visual imprinting in the emergence of specific filial attachments in ducklings.

Conducted 2 experiments with a total of 36 1-11 day old Khaki Campbell ducklings, to assess the suppression of distress vocalization by 2 distinctive stimuli before and after Ss were imprinted to 1 of the stimuli. In Exp. I, both stimuli strongly suppressed distress calls initially. At 5 days of age, however, only the stimulus involved in imprinting suppressed the calls. Results suggest that the loss of control by the nonimprinted stimulus was age-related and represented the development of fear to insufficiently-familiar stimuli. In Exp. II, 5-11 day old Ss were permitted lengthy exposure to a novel imprinting-type stimulus. Under these circumstances, distress vocalization eventually came under stimulus control. The overall pattern of results suggests that through imprinting, stimuli that innately evoke filial behavior become familiar and thus are prevented from later evoking novelty-induced fear. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Unconscious anxiety": Phobic responses to masked stimuli.

Tested the hypothesis that an unconscious preattentive perceptual analysis of phobic stimuli is sufficient to elicit human fear responses. Selected snake- and spider-fearful Ss, as well as normal controls, were exposed to pictures of snakes, spiders, flowers, and mushrooms. A separate forced-choice recognition experiment established backward masking conditions that effectively precluded recognition of experimental stimuli both for fearful and nonfearful Ss. In the main experiment, these conditions were used to compare skin conductance responses (SCRs) to masked and nonmasked phobic and control pictures among fearful and nonfearful Ss. In support of the hypotheses, snake- and spider-fearful Ss showed elevated SCRs to snake and spider pictures as compared with neutral pictures and with responses of the nonfearful Ss under both masking conditions. Ratings of valence, arousal, and dominance indicated that the fearful Ss felt more negative, more aroused, and less dominant in relation to both masked and nonmasked phobic stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in cardiovascular reactions to stress and cigarette smoking.

Examined the stability of cardiovascular (CDV) reactions to psychological stress and cigarette smoking and the extent to which CDV actions to stress were predictive of CDV reactions to smoking. 26 male Ss were given an initial test involving 2 repetitions of mental arithmetic stress and paced smoking while blood pressure and heart rate were measured. Ss were retested 2 mo later in the same paradigm. Large and stable individual differences were observed in CDV reactivity to both stress and smoking. For systolic and diastolic blood pressure, but not heart rate, reactions to stress were modestly correlated with reactions to cigarette smoking, suggesting that levels of reactivity to cigarette smoking may have significance for coronary heart disease and blood pressure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential ordering of stimulus presentation in systematic desensitization.

50 snake-phobic female Ss were matched on degree of behavioral avoidance and subjective fear and then randomly assigned to 1 of 3 desensitization or 2 control groups: (a) imagined stimuli presented in order of increasing aversiveness, (b) stimuli presented in a decreasingly aversive order, (c) random order presentation, (d) pseudodesensitization, and (e) no-treatment control. Ss in the 3 desensitization groups showed significantly greater improvement than did Ss in either control group. While no differences were found between Ss exposed to an increasingly aversive hierarchy and Ss who received a decreasing order, the random order tended to be less effective than the other 2. An ascending aversive order of stimulus presentations is not an essential and integral part of successful desensitization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fear reduction in the rat following central cholinergic blockade.

In the presence of a natural predator, cat, 92 male Long-Evans hooded rats (in 2 experiments) showed a constellation of responses that was used to define fear: freezing, avoiding the cat, and suppressing consummatory behavior. Compared with controls, Ss treated with an anticholinergic drug, scopolamine, showed significantly less freezing and significantly more approach to the cat; further, these Ss actually engaged in consummatory behavior in proximity to the cat. On a 2nd, undrugged exposure to the cat, the original scopolamine-treated Ss continued to show significantly less freezing, more approach, and more drinking than control Ss. Since methyl scopolamine, which mimics the peripheral actions of scopolamine, had no effect on fear responses, these results implicate a central cholinergic system in fear responses or species-typical defense reactions. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of genetic vestibular defects on behavior related to spatial orientation and emotionality.

Administered a large battery of behavioral tests to 11 normal mice and to 20 mice with varying degrees of otoconial agenesis due to genes affecting vestibular development. Many significant differences were found, but a factor analysis revealed that the variance on the 11 best tests could be accounted for in terms of 2 underlying variables. Factor I, the more important of the 2, was associated with activity, habituation, and spontaneous alternation. Factor II appeared to represent a fear of new stimuli or situations. In both cases, factor scores were highly related to the degree of otoconial deficiency. In a 2nd experiment, a subgroup of 5 Ss with severe otoconial agenesis displayed hyperactivity and a total absence of either habituation or spontaneous alternation. In these Ss brain and body development were stunted, and the reactions to amphetamine and physostigmine were opposite to those seen in normal Ss. Results support the idea that the static organs contribute importantly to spatial orientation and suggest that early-onset vestibular defects can result in profound alterations of emotionality. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional learning, hedonic change, and the startle probe.

A multiple-response analysis of aversive learning was conducted in human Ss. For each S, 2 pictorial stimuli were presented, 1 paired with electric shock. After training, the magnitude of the acoustic startle eyeblink reflex elicited in the context of the shocked picture increased dramatically and was significantly larger than for reflexes elicited during the nonshocked stimulus. Five different picture contents were tested in separate groups: Reflex potentiation was larger for pictures rated as pleasant than pictures rated as unpleasant. CRs were also evident for skin conductance, heart rate, and affective judgments. Different systems reflected different aspects of the acquired fear response: Conductance change covaried with arousal, and startle probe magnitude varied with affective valence (pleasure). The neurophysiological implications of the data are elucidated, and parallels drawn between animal and human S findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Persistence of fear-reducing behavior: Relevance for the conditioning theory of neurosis.

Provided experimental support for O. H. Mowrer's (1939) conditioning theory of neurosis. 16 female naive hooded rats were given conditioned stimulus/stimuli (CS) shock trials (fear conditioning) in one side of a 2-compartment apparatus. Then, in the absence of shock, Ss were allowed to escape fear by jumping a hurdle to a safe compartment. The hurdle-jumping response was considered to be analogous to anxiety-based symptomatic behavior indicative of psychopathology in that the performance of the response was unrelated to the receipt of further shock. All Ss learned the hurdle-jumping response, and then performance gradually declined until an extinction criterion was reached. Thus, a response instrumental in reducing fear was learned and was maintained over many trials. A subsequent single fear-conditioning trial led immediately to a high level of performance followed by gradual extinction. Findings imply that, when fear is extinguished, instrumental responding can cease even though some response strength remains; the importance for therapy of focusing on the extinction of both instrumental (symptomatic) behavior and fear is suggested. Evidence for the spontaneous recovery of fear is also provided. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Heart rate perception in the Type A personality.

Compared 28 male students with Type A (coronary prone) behavior with 28 Type B (noncoronary prone) behavior males for accuracy in estimating their own heart rates at rest and in response to a mild cognitive stressor. Type A behavior was measured by the Jenkins Activity Survey of D. S. Krantz et al (1974). Both types had significant heart rate increases in the stress periods, but these were greater for Type A Ss. Type A Ss overestimated their heart rate at rest and during stress more often than did Type B Ss. Feedback resulted in more nearly correct estimations by both groups. Type A Ss perceived themselves as being more aroused than did Type B Ss, a finding inconsistent with the hypothesis that Type A individuals underestimate their response to stress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disruptive effects of posttraining perirhinal cortex lesions on conditioned fear: Contributions of contextual cues.

Lesions placed in the rostral perirhinal cortex (rPRh) after fear conditioning interfere with the expression of conditioned fear responses elicited by auditory and visual conditioned stimuli when these stimuli are presented in a context that differs from the conditioning context. The present study examined whether lesions of the rPRh have similar effects when animals are tested in the conditioning context. Two days after male rats received classical fear conditioning, involving the pairing of an auditory CS with footshock, bilateral electrolytic lesions were produced in the rPRh. Five days later conditioned freezing behavior was measured during a 60-s exposure to the CS in a novel context and then 1 hr later in the conditioning context. There were 3 major findings: rPRh-lesioned Ss froze significantly less than controls to the CS in the novel context, thus confirming previously reported findings. rPRh-lesioned Ss also froze less than controls to the CS in the conditioning context, but froze significantly more to the CS in the conditioning than in the novel context, suggesting that at least part of the deficit in the novel context is due to the absence of contextual cues. Ss with rPRh lesions froze significantly less than controls to the conditioning context itself.… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of facial response in the experience of emotion.

Facial expression and emotional stimuli were varied orthogonally in a 3?×?4 factorial design to test whether facial expression is necessary or sufficient to influence emotional experience. 123 undergraduates watched a film eliciting fear, sadness, or no emotion while holding their facial muscles in the position characteristic of fear or sadness or in an effortful but nonemotional grimace; those in a 4th group received no facial instructions. The Ss believed that the study concerned subliminal perception and that the facial positions were necessary to prevent physiological recording artifacts. The films had powerful effects on reported emotions, the facial expressions none. Correlations between facial expression and reported emotion were zero. Sad and fearful Ss showed distinctive patterns of physiological arousal. Facial expression also tended to affect physiological responses in a manner consistent with an effort hypothesis. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)