Antioxidant properties of some commonly consumed and underutilized tropical legumes

The antioxidant properties of some commonly consumed [cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)] and underutilized [pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) and African yam bean (Sphenostylis sternocarpa)] legumes were assessed with regard to their Vitamin C, total phenol, and phytate content, as well as antioxidant activity as typified by their reducing power and free radical scavenging ability. The Vitamin C content of the cowpeas ranged from 0.5 to 0.9 mg/100 g, while that of underutilized legumes were 0.9 mg/100 g for pigeon pea and 0.8 mg/100 g for African yam beans. The phenol content of the cowpeas were 0.3–1.0 mg/g, African yam bean had 0.7 mg/g total phenols, while pigeon pea contained 0.4 (white) and 1.2 mg/g (brown) total phenol content, respectively. The phytate content of all the legumes [cowpea (2.0–2.9%), pigeon pea (2.0–2.4%), African yam beans (2.4%)] analyzed were generally high, while the reducing power and free radical scavenging ability for all the legumes were very low except in African yam beans (23.6%), cowpea brown (29.9%), and pigeon pea brown (54.5%) that had a relatively high free radical scavenging ability. Therefore, one of the commonly consumed cowpea V. unguiculata (brown) and underutilized legumes C. cajan (brown) and S. sternocarpa could be considered as a functional food due to their relatively higher antioxidant activity (free radical scavenging ability and redox potential) which could be as a result of their relative higher total phenol content.     

5种豆类中总多酚、总黄酮含量及抗氧化活性比较研究

以黑豆、绿豆、红小豆、大豆和豇豆5种豆类为研究对象,测定其乙醇提取物总多酚和总黄酮含量,并通过4个指标比较其体外抗氧化活性。结果表明,5种不同豆类中总多酚和总黄酮含量分别在2.05 mg/g^6.33 mg/g和1.50 mg/g^4.09 mg/g的范围内,其中黑豆的总多酚和总黄酮含量都最高,分别为6.33 mg/g和4.09 mg/g;5种豆类对DPPH自由基、羟基自由基、超氧阴离子自由基的清除能力都比较高,黑豆的清除力最强,其对3种自由基的清除能力分别为80.92%、77.42%和81.62%;相关性分析表明5种豆类的总多酚含量和总黄酮含量之间呈极显著正相关(P<0.01),这两种活性成分含量和DPPH自由基、羟基自由基、超氧阴离子自由基清除能力之间都呈正相关,其中总黄酮含量和超氧阴离子自由基清除能力之间呈显著正相关(P<0.05)。     

Changes in differently processed soya bean (Glycine max.) and lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) with particular reference to their chemical composition and their mineral and some inherent anti-nutritional constituents

The effects of 3 processing techniques: cooking, roasting and autoclaving on the proximate chemical composition, the mineral content and some inherent toxic factors of soya and lima beans were investigated. The processing techniques generally reduced the crude fibre levels and enhanced the extractable fat in the soya and lima beans. The coefficients of variability for crude fibre and ether extract due to the processing techniques of soya and lima beans were 20.9%, 16.0% and 22.3%, 38.1%, respectively. In parallel with decreased ash content in the cooked bean samples, there was a decrease in the K, Mg, Na and P levels relative to the raw bean and also relative to the other processing techniques. Mineral contents of the autoclaved bean samples were generally similar to those of the raw (unprocessed) samples. Under the processing conditions, roasting caused the highest reduction in thioglucoside content (59%) in soya bean while cooking caused the highest reduction in lima bean (78%). Trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) ranged between 0.59 mg/g sample in the cooked soya bean and 11.6 mg/g sample in the raw bean while the corresponding values for lima bean ranged between 0.59 and 6.3 mg/g sample. Cooking and roasting caused over 90% reduction of TIA, while autoclaving caused 64-69% reduction in both bean samples. Under the assay conditions, haemagglutinating activity was not detected in the cooked and autoclaved soya and lima beans. The need to prevent both functional and nutritional damage to food proteins and other nutrients, resulting from excessive heating, was discussed.     

Phenolic Antioxidants in Some Vigna Species of Legumes and their Distinct Inhibitory Effects on α-Glucosidase and Pancreatic Lipase Activities

Phenolic extracts of 4 Vigna species of legumes (mung bean, moth bean, and black and red varieties of adzuki beans) were evaluated for phenolic contents, antioxidant activities, and inhibitory properties against α-glucosidase and pancreatic lipase. Results showed that adzuki bean varieties contain higher phenolic indexes than mung bean and moth beans. Adzuki bean (black) variety was found to be the most active 2,2′-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and superoxide anion scavenger. However, the hydrogen peroxide scavenging and metal chelating abilities were significantly higher in adzuki bean (red) variety. Mung bean exhibited least antioxidant activities in all the methods tested. Phenolic extracts from these legumes also showed distinct variations in the inhibition of enzymes associated with hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia. Inhibitory activities of all the extracts against lipase were found to be more potent than α-glucosidase. Although, α-glucosidase inhibitory activity was superior in the black variety of adzuki bean (IC(50,) 26.28 mg/mL), both adzuki bean varieties (black and red) along with moth bean showed strong inhibitory activities on lipase with no significant difference in their IC(50) values (7.32 to 9.85 mg/mL). These results suggest that Vigna species of legumes are potential source of antioxidant phenolics and also great sources of strong natural inhibitors for α-glucosidase and lipase activities. This information may help for effective utilization of these legumes as functional food ingredients for promoting health. Practical Application: Vigna species of legumes are good sources of phenolic antioxidants and strong natural inhibitors of enzymes associated with diabetes and obesity. Therefore, utilization of these legumes in the development of functional foods with increased therapeutic value would be a significant step toward health promotion and wellness.     

In vitro digestibility of processed and fermented soya bean,cowpea and maize

Tropical legumes, ie soya bean and cowpea, were pre‐treated and subsequently fermented using pure cultures of Rhizopus spp. Impact of soaking, cooking and fermentation of the legumes on their digestibility was determined using an in vitro digestion method. Processing of white maize included, amongst others, natural lactic acid fermentation, cooking and saccharification using barley malt. An in vitro method was standardised to carry out comparative determinations of the dry matter digestibility of cereal and legume food samples as a function of processing conditions, without attempting to exactly mimic gastrointestinal digestion. Using this method based on upper digestive tract digestion, it was observed that digestibility of the legumes increased during cooking and fermentation. Cooking improved the total digestibility of both soya bean and cowpea from 36.5 to 44.8% and from 15.4 to 40.9% respectively. Subsequent fungal fermentation increased total digestibility only by about 3% for both soya bean and cowpea. Digestibility was also influenced by fungal strain and fermentation time. Cooking and subsequent saccharification using malt almost tripled total digestibility of white maize from 25.5 to 63.6%, whereas lactic fermentation of maize had no effect on in vitro dry matter digestibility. Although total digestibility of cooked legumes was only slightly improved by mould fermentation (3% for both soya bean and cowpea), the level of water‐soluble dry matter of food samples increased during fermentation with Rhizopus oryzae from 7.0 up to 27.3% for soya bean and from 4.3 up to 24.1% for cowpea. These fermented products could therefore play a role as sources of easily available nutrients for individuals suffering from digestive disorders. © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry     

Accumulation and quality of storage protein in developing cowpea,mung bean and soya bean seeds

This study was carried out to compare the time course of laying down seed storage protein in three legumes viz: cowpea (Vigna unquiculata), mung bean (Phaseolus aureus) and soya bean (Glycine max) planted in two replications. Pods were harvested periodically during seed maturation and studied for changes in fresh and dry weights, total sulphur, total nitrogen and protein content. At early stages of development crude protein formed about one-third of dry weight in the legumes but decreased to about one-quarter at maturity. The total sulphur which formed a substantial amount of the sulphur amino-acids in mature seeds did not change much in mung bean and cowpea but increased by about 24% from 20 to 69 days after flowering (DAF) in soya bean. Storage protein accumulation was very rapid between 10 and 14 DAF (10.4% day^?1) in mung bean, 7 and 14 DAF (12.9% day^?1) in cowpea and between 20 and 30 DAF (9.4 day^?1) in soya bean. Thereafter, protein accumulation declined slightly and gradually approached zero at time of seed maturity. The sulphur-to-nitrogen ratios gradually increased with maximum values in the mature seeds. Although seed protein content and quality (on S/N ratio basis) were highest in soya bean, accumulation of storage protein seemed to be faster in cowpea than mung bean and soya bean during seed maturation.     

GLYCEMIC AND PHYSIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FIVE COMMON COWPEA (VIGNA UNGUICULATA) CULTIVARS IN NIGERIA

The physicochemical and physiological properties of five commonly consumed cowpea cultivars in Nigeria were assessed. The cultivars examined included Sokoto, Patasco, Iron beans, Isiocha and Ife brown. Ife brown had the most interesting physiochemical properties. It had the highest blue value index of 51.2, highest emulsion capacity of 3.5 g/g and the shortest cooking time of 30 min. Sokoto took the longest cooking time of 62 min. The cowpeas had glycemic responses ranging from 131.4 to 227.5 mg/dL against 369.5 mg/dL for white bread. The values for the glycemic index (GI) of the cultivars were on the low side (0–55) with the exception of Patasco, which had an intermediate GI of 61.57. Ife brown was found to exhibit a defined sinusoidal blood glucose curve. The incremental area under the blood glucose curve for Ife brown was also the smallest (P = 0.05) among the cultivars. This indicated, within the limit of this experiment, that this cultivar exerted the least stress on metabolic blood sugars of volunteers. Ife brown is considered the best in terms of managing physiological changes in blood sugar.     

SOLUBILIZATION AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF MOTH BEAN (VIGNA ACONITIFOLIA (Jacq.) Marechal AND HORSE GRAM (MACROTYLOMA UNIFLORUM (Lam.) Verdc. PROTEINS

Horse gram and moth bean seeds contained 23.6% and 21.9% protein (N x 6.25), respectively. Both the legumes are rich sources of iron. The iron contents in horse gram and moth beans were 11.0 and 9.6 mg/100 g, respectively. NaCl at 10% (w/v) and Na₂CO₃ at 0.5% (w/v) were found to be effective in extracting 89% and 80% of moth bean and horse gram proteins from defatted flour The minimum solubility of horse gram proteins from defatted flour was at pH 4.0 whereas proteins from moth bean exhibited minimum solubility at pH 4.5. The water and oil absorption, and foaming capacities in case of horse gram and moth bean flours were 2.0 g/g and 2.2 g/g, 23.0% and 2.0 g/g, 1.6 g/g, 27.6%, respectively.     

Potential of combining neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) seed oil with varietal resistance for the management of the cowpea bruchid, Callosobruchus maculatus (F.)

The efficacy of different rates (25, 50, 75 and 100 mg/5 g seed) of application of neem (Azadirachta indica) seed oil (NSO) was assessed on four cowpea varieties (Kanannado, IT89KD-391, Borno brown and IT89KD-374) with differing susceptibilities to Callosobruchus maculatus. The different rates of NSO significantly interacted with cowpea varietal resistance and reduced oviposition and percentage adult emergence of C. maculatus. The interaction of the strategies also significantly reduced percentage of cowpea seeds infested by C. maculatus. Treatment of seeds with NSO at the rates of 50 mg/5 g and 75 or 100 mg/5 g reduced seed damage from over 25% in controls to less than 10% and less than 5%, respectively, in all varieties.     

美拉德反应过程中7种豆粉对丙烯酰胺和羟甲基糠醛形成的影响

丙烯酰胺和羟甲基糠醛是高温加工食品中产生的两种内源污染物。本文研究了7种豆类（黑豆、鹰嘴豆、绿豌豆、小扁豆、绿豆、黄豌豆和黄豆）的豆粉对天冬酰胺/葡萄糖反应体系中丙烯酰胺和羟甲基糠醛（HMF）形成的影响,以其为两者的控制提供参考。结果表明：采用全豆粉试验时,有5个品种的豆粉抑制丙烯酰胺（抑制率10.3~55%）形成,但都促进HMF的产生;去皮脱脂后的豆粉更能抑制丙烯酰胺形成。有趣的是,其中4个品种的豆皮也能抑制丙烯酰胺的产生。进一步研究发现,有5个品种的脱脂豆粉能消除已形成的丙烯酰胺,消除率为5.9%（绿豆粉）至28.5%（大豆粉）。通过统计本研究的39种处理发现,丙烯酰胺与HMF的形成量呈现负相关。     

Content of some antinutritional factors in bean cultivars frequently consumed in Brazil

Protein content and content of some antinutrients were determined in four Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp and three Vicia faba cultivars frequently consumed in Brazil. The V. faba cultivars showed higher protein contents [26.8%–27.2% (w/w)] than the V. unguiculata cultivars [20.5%–22.5% (w/w)]. The difference was, however, not statistically significant (P ≥ 0.05). Compared with the V. unguiculata cultivars, the V. faba cultivars exhibited a significantly higher content of all antinutritional factors analysed. In V. faba, condensed tannins ranged from 1.95 to 2.87 g eq. catechin (CE) kg⁻¹, polyphenols from 4.81 to 7.21 g kg⁻¹, phytate from 12.7 to 14.3 mmol kg⁻¹, trypsin inhibitor activity from 4.12–4.38 TIU mg⁻¹ and haemagglutinating activity from 51.3 to 57.2 HU kg⁻¹; whereas in V. unguiculata, the corresponding values were determined to be 0.97–1.81 g eq. CE kg⁻¹ for condensed tannins, 5.87–6.62 g kg⁻¹ for polyphenols, 8.7–12.6 mmol kg⁻¹ for phytate, 3.09–3.56 TIU mg⁻¹ for trypsin inhibitor activity and 0.5–0.6 HU kg⁻¹ for haemagglutinating activity.     

The effect of germination on the phytase activity,phytate and total phosphorus contents of some Nigerian‐grown grain legumes

BACKGROUND: Grain legumes are under‐exploited as possible sources of phytase for the poultry industry. The current study was conducted to assess the effect of germination on phytase activities, phytate and total phosphorus content in samples of Nigerian‐grown grain legumes. The legumes screened were African yambean (AYB, Sphenostylis stenocarpa), lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and groundnut (Arachis hypogea). RESULTS: Phytase activity was low in AYB, lima bean and pigeon pea but high in cowpea and groundnut. Phytate content ranged between 3.01 g kg^?1 and 8.95 g kg^?1 while total phosphorus content ranged between 2.63 g kg^?1 and 5.93 g kg^?1. The grain legumes with higher phytase activity recorded the lowest phytate and phosphorus content. During germination there was an initial 4‐fold to 35‐fold increase in phytase activity after 6–7 days of germination followed by a decrease until 10 days (P < 0.05). The increase in phytase activity during germination was accompanied by a significant reduction in phytate (P < 0.05) and a small but significant increase in total phosphorus. CONCLUSION: The increase in phytase activity and the accompanying decrease in phytate content could have a positive implication for the nutrition of poultry and ruminants and for the environment. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

小豆种质资源总黄酮含量测定及相关分析

小豆黄酮类化合物含量较高,类黄酮具有保健功能和药用价值。本研究选取279份栽培小豆、野生和半野生小豆种质资源材料,采用紫外分光光度法测定总黄酮含量,并对总黄酮含量与农艺性状进行相关分析。结果表明小豆总黄酮含量的变异范围为1.12~5.97mg RE/g,育成小豆品种总黄酮平均含量2.95mg RE/g、变异系数为25.76%;地方品种总黄酮平均含量3.31mg RE/g、变异系数为26.89%;半野生小豆总黄酮平均含量为3.55mg RE/g、变异系数为15.77%;野生小豆总黄酮平均含量为4.06 mg RE/g、变异系数为18.23%。野生小豆总黄酮平均含量高于栽培小豆,小豆总黄酮含量与现花期、盛花期、第一荚成熟、100%成熟呈极显著正相关,与籽粒亮度值L呈显著正相关,与百粒重、种子面积、红度值a呈极显著负相关;与地理经度和纬度分别呈极显著和显著负相关,总黄酮含量随着经纬度升高而降低,随着海拔降低而降低。研究为高类黄酮小豆种质资源挖掘利用和育种改良提供了有效依据。     

Legume seed vicilins (7S storage proteins) interfere with the development of the cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus (F))

Vicilins (7S storage proteins) isolated from the seeds of the legumes Vigna unguiculata (cowpea), Vigna angularis (adzuki bean), Canavalia ensiformis (jack bean), Glycine max (soybean), Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean) and Phaseolus lunatus (lima bean) were shown to be immunologically related and to bind to a chitin matrix. The effect of the isolated vicilins on the development of the cowpea weevil Callosobruchus maculatus was examined. Vicilins from all non-host seeds, including those of the C maculatus-resistant cowpea line IT81D-1045, strongly inhibited larval development (ED₅₀ of 1·07±0·32% to 2·22±0·64%). Vicilins from the C maculatus-susceptible cowpea CE-31 and adzuki bean seeds were the exception with ED₅₀ of 6·25±0·75% and 5·40±1·54%, respectively. These results correlate well with the host range of C maculatus and are possibly a reflection of the low digestibility of vicilins by insect midgut proteinases in addition to the ability they show in binding to chitin-containing structures like the ones found in the bruchid midguts. © 1998 SCI.     

干酪乳杆菌发酵8种食用豆提取物抗氧化活性研究

该试验分析了干酪乳杆菌（Lactobacillus casei）发酵8种食用豆总酚、总黄酮含量以及抗氧化活性的变化。结果表明,发酵前豇豆总酚含量最高,为（5.53±0.18） mg 没食子酸当量（GAE）/g干质量;红豆总黄酮含量最高,为（11.55±0.16） mg 芦丁当量（RE）/g干质量。发酵后绿豆总酚、总黄酮含量增加最高,分别为182.35%、27.84%;豇豆总酚含量、菜豆总黄酮含量下降最多,分别为43.40%、82.13%。发酵后豌豆提取物1,1-二苯基-2-三硝基苯肼（DPPH）自由基清除活性上升最显著,菜豆提取物下降最显著;绿豆提取物2,2'-联氮-双（3-乙基苯并噻唑啉-6-磺酸）二铵盐（ABTS）自由基清除活性上升最显著,菜豆提取物下降最显著;豌豆提取物铁离子还原能力上升最显著,菜豆提取物下降最显著。相关性分析结果显示,总酚、总黄酮含量与抗氧化活性均极显著相关（P＜0.01）。发酵对食用豆酚类物质含量和抗氧化活性影响显著,为开发不同食用豆功能食品提供理论基础。     

Fermentation alters antioxidant capacity and polyphenol distribution in selected edible legumes

This study was designed to investigate the influences of fermentation by naturally occurring bacteria on legumes and lactic acid bacteria on antioxidant capacity and polyphenols in both soluble and bound extracts of eight common edible legumes, including black cow gram, mottled cowpea, speckled kidney bean, lentil, small rice bean, small runner bean and two soya beans. Fermentation had varying effects on the antioxidant capacity of soluble and bound extracts in different edible legumes, with fermented mottled cowpea, speckled kidney bean and small rice bean showing increased total antioxidant capacity. In addition, fermentation in general enhanced total phenolic content in all the selected legumes, which could be associated with the biotransformation between soluble phenolics and the release of bound phenolics induced by micro‐organisms involved in the fermentation process. Phenolic compounds, such as catechin, were increased in fermented mottled cowpea. Overall, fermentation could increase the bioavailability of legume polyphenols and fermented legume powders rich in antioxidant polyphenols can be used to develop novel functional foods.     

Composition and in vitro digestibility of raw versus cooked white- and colour-flowered peas

Ten pea cultivars (four white-flowered, Pisum sativum ssp. hortense, and six colour-flowered, Pisum sativum ssp. arvense) grown in Latvia were analyzed and tested in in vitro experiments, as raw and cooked seeds. The colour-flowered (CF) had a greater proportion of hulls and a higher acid detergent fibre (ADF) content than white-flowered (WF) pea seeds (10.7 vs. 8.2% and 92.2 vs. 84.5 g/kg dry matter (DM), respectively). Three out of six CF varieties had a significantly greater amount of protein bound to neutral detergent fibre (NDF) than WF peas. The tannin content was higher in CF than in WF peas (8.46 vs. 0.37 g/kg DM). In vitro protein and amino acid digestibility was about 8% higher in WF than in CF varieties. Cooking decreased the tannin content in CF peas (8.46 vs. 5.51 g/kg DM) but had no effect on in vitro protein digestibility. Heat treatment reduced significantly trypsin inhibitor activity and amount of protein bound to NDF in CF and WF varieties (from 6.50 to 0.52 and from 6.54 to 0.46 trypsin inhibitor units (TIU)/mg DM; from 1.250 to 0.831 and 0.761 to 0.209 g N/100 g NDF, respectively). However, the protein bound to NDF content in pea DM increased in CF and decreased in WF varieties (from 1.525 to 2.145 and from 0.913 to 0.502 g N/kg DM, respectively). Cooking resulted in an increased NDF content over two times in both CF and WF pea seeds (from 122 to 259 and from 120 to 262 g/kg DM, respectively). The results suggest that colour-flowered pea may be considered as an interesting dietary alternative to white-flowered pea since cooking removes trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), decreases tannins, and increases dietary fibre contents.     

Air classification of flours of three legume species: Fractionation of protein

The effect of changing the cut point of a laboratory air classifier on the protein fractionation into the fines was studied on the flour of two varieties each of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), faba bean (Vicia faba) and pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan). Of the three species, the highest fines protein content (56.5–62.7% Nx6.25 over the range of cut points studied) and protein recovery (44.2–86.5% over the range) was for one variety of faba bean. The other variety of faba bean showed lower values. Fines from cowpea and pigeonpea flour contained protein contents in the range 26.5–46.8%, depending on cut point, with protein recoveries of 28.3–63.5%. Plots of dry weight yield vs. protein content of fines indicate that once the relationship between these two parameters has been established for a given species (or, in the case of faba bean, for variety), then the protein content of fines can be predicted from dry weight yield.     

Structural and some nutritional characteristics of Velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) and Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) starches

Velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) and lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) starches were isolated from seeds and their structural characteristics evaluated using XRD, size‐exclusion chromatography and light scattering analyzes. Total starch, available starch, RS and in vitro digestibility were also determined. Structural and nutritional characteristics of Velvet bean and Lima bean starches were compared to those of commercial corn starch. The legumes starches presented a C‐type XRD pattern and crystallite sizes of 43.1 Å for velvet bean and 48.3 Å for lima bean. Lima bean starch average molar mass (4.9 × 10⁶ g/mol) was slightly higher than the velvet bean starch (3.04 × 10⁶ g/mol). Size‐exclusion chromatography indicated structural similarity between the lima bean and corn starches which differed from that of the velvet bean starch. Hydrodynamic radius (R_H) for the velvet bean and lima bean starches was 45.5 and 55 nm, respectively, and their radius of gyration (R_G) was 67.7 and 82.5 nm, respectively. Total starch content in all three starches was greater than 98%. Their complex crystalline structure provided the legume starches lower in vitro digestibility values than the corn starch. RS content in both the velvet bean starch (7.72%) and lima bean starch (5.66%) was higher than in the corn starch, essentially qualifying these polysaccharides as natural dietary fiber sources, with the associated physiologic advantages.     

Preparation and Characterization of Protein Isolate from Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.)

ABSTRACT: Protein isolate (PI) was prepared from 3 cowpea varieties and 2 soybean varieties in each of 2 y. The protein contents of cowpea PI (CPI) (91.4% to 91.8%) and soy PI (SPI) (93.0% to 93.5%) were significantly different ( P < 0.05). Electrophoretogram showed that CPI was concentrated at 60 and 40 kDa, whereas SPI showed bands at 95, 65, 60, 40, and 35 kDa. The CPI had higher lysine (49.3 to 51.8 mg/g) than SPI (41.9 to 43.4 mg/g). The CPI and SPI had surface hydrophobicities ranging from 387.8 to 572.9 and 640.6 to 643.1, respectively. Denaturation temperature (85.2 to 88.4 °C) and enthalpy (8.42 to 10.33 J/g) of CPI were similar to the 7S fraction of SPI (82.6 °C and 96.0 to 96.3 J/g). These characteristics of CPI might be useful to explain its functionalities for application in food systems.