Response analysis and comparison of a spar‐type floating offshore wind turbine and an onshore wind turbine under blade pitch controller faults

This paper analyses the effects of three pitch system faults on two classes of wind turbines, one is an onshore type and the other a floating offshore spar‐type wind turbine. A stuck blade pitch actuator, a fixed value fault and a bias fault in the blade pitch sensor are considered. The effects of these faults are investigated using short‐term extreme response analysis with the HAWC2 simulation tool. The main objectives of the paper are to investigate how the different faults affect the performance of wind turbines and which differences exist in the structural responses between onshore and floating offshore wind turbines. Several load cases are covered in a statistical analysis to show the effects of faults at different wind speeds and fault amplitudes. The severity of individual faults is categorized by the extreme values the faults have on structural loads. A pitch sensor stuck is determined as being the most severe case. Comparison between the effects on floating offshore and onshore wind turbines show that in the onshore case the tower, the yaw bearing and the shaft are subjected to the highest risk, whereas in the offshore case, the shaft is in this position. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Experimental validation of model‐based blade pitch controller design for floating wind turbines: system identification approach

This paper discusses the model‐based design of a blade pitch controller for a floating offshore wind turbine (FOWT) scale model. A mathematical model of the FOWT is constructed from an input–output measurement in an experiment using system identification. The blade pitch controller is designed by an control method, and the effectiveness of the controller is evaluated by means of a basin experiment using the FOWT scale model. The results show that the blade pitch controller is effective in reducing platform pitch motion and rotor speed fluctuation. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Optimization‐based load reduction during rapid shutdown of multi‐megawatt wind turbine generators

This paper describes an optimization‐based approach to reducing extreme structural loads during rapid or emergency shutdown of multi‐megawatt wind turbine generators. The load reduction problem is cast into an optimal control formulation, and a simple, low‐order model is developed in order for this optimization problem to be tractable in reasonable time using state‐of‐the‐art numerical methods. To handle the variations in wind speed and turbulence inherent to wind turbine operation as well as the presence of model mismatch, a real‐time optimization strategy based on fast sensitivity updates is also considered, whose online computational burden is limited to the repeated solution of quadratic programs that are designed offline. The low‐order model and both the open‐loop and closed‐loop optimal control strategies are validated against a high‐fidelity model in the simulation environment Bladed ? for an industrial 3 MW wind turbine. Under favorable shutdown scenarios, i.e. when the wind turbine is operating properly and the actuators and sensors are not faulty, large reductions of the first compressive peak and subsequent compressive/tensile peaks of the tower load pattern are obtained at various above‐rated wind speeds compared with normal pitch control shutdown. Extension to more challenging shutdown scenarios are also discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于有限元法的漂浮式风力机Spar平台动态响应分析

以美国可再生能源实验室(NREL)的5 MW漂浮式风力机和Spar平台为参考模型,采用有限元分析法分析了Spar平台的波浪载荷频域特性,包括对振幅响应算子、绕射力和F-K力频域动态响应分析,并对比了三种波浪谱(P-M谱、JONSWAP谱和Wen’s谱)海况下的时域响应.结果表明:Spar平台载荷峰值出现在低频波浪作用下,且响应明显,而随着频率的增大,其值逐渐减小;在P-M谱和Wen’s谱作用下的平台动态响应无明显差异,且两者的振幅和周期大致相同,而在JONSWAP谱作用下的平台动态响应最小,但其往复周期小,频率大,使得系泊系统承受较大的周期性张力.     

切出风速下风力机变桨故障叶片气动特性及准静态结构响应分析

为探究大型水平轴风力机达到切出风速停机后变桨故障叶片的气动特性及准静态结构响应,基于计算流体力学方法对NREL 5 MW风力机变桨故障/成功叶片气动侧状态进行分析,并利用双向弱流固耦合及曲屈分析对典型方位角下变桨故障叶片展开研究。结果显示：切出风速下变桨故障叶片挥舞力矩平均值为变桨成功叶片的13.8倍,且前者的流场尾迹更为明显。此外,180°方位角变桨故障叶片较之0°方位角变桨故障叶片应力及叶尖位移分别减小29.8%和32.7%,一阶屈曲因子增加20.2%。     

随机风速下风力发电机传动系统动态外载荷计算

通过建立实际风场的随机风速模型、风轮气动性能模型、传动链模型、发电机模型,获得了风力发电机整机的动力学分析模型。根据变速风力发电机的控制策略,计算了随机风速和发电机负载条件下传动系统的动态外载荷,并比较了采用刚性、柔性传动链模型对传动系统动态外载荷的影响,为进一步研究风力发电机齿轮传动系统的动态特性及可靠性奠定了基础。     

Numerical modeling of the hydraulic blade pitch actuator in a spar‐type floating wind turbine considering fault conditions and their effects on global dynamic responses

This paper deals with numerical modeling of the hydraulic blade pitch actuator and its effect on the dynamic responses of a floating spar‐type wind turbine under valve fault conditions. A spar‐type floating wind turbine concept is modeled and simulated using an aero‐hydro‐servo‐elastic simulation tool (Simo‐Riflex [SR]). Because the blade pitch system has the highest failure rate, a numerical model of the hydraulic blade pitch actuator with/without valve faults is developed and linked to SR to study the effects of faults on global responses of the spar‐type floating wind turbine for different faults, fault magnitudes, and environmental conditions. The consequence of valve faults in the pitch actuator is that the blade cannot be pitched to the desired angle, so there may be a delay in the response due to excessive friction and the wrong voltage, or slit lock may cause runaway blade pitch. A short circuit may cause the blade to get stuck at a particular pitch angle. These faults contribute to rotor imbalance, which result in different effects on the turbine structure and the platform motions. The proposed method for combining global and hydraulic actuator models is demonstrated in case studies with stochastic wind and wave conditions and different types of valve faults.     

Characterizing power performance and wake of a wind turbine under yaw and blade pitch

Wind turbine wakes have been recognized as a key issue causing underperformance in existing wind farms. In order to improve the performance and reduce the cost of energy from wind farms, one approach is to develop innovative methods to improve the net capacity factor by reducing wake losses. The output power and characteristics of the wake of a utility‐scale wind turbine under yawed flow is studied to explore the possibility of improving the overall performance of wind farms. Preliminary observations show that the power performance of a turbine does not degrade significantly under yaw conditions up to approximately 10°. Additionally, a yawed wind turbine may be able to deflect its wake in the near‐wake region, changing the wake trajectory downwind, with the progression of the far wake being dependent on several atmospheric factors such as wind streaks. Changes in the blade pitch angle also affect the characteristics of the turbine wake and are also examined in this paper. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Stochastic dynamic response analysis of a tension leg spar‐type offshore wind turbine

This paper presents a stochastic dynamic response analysis of a tension leg spar‐type wind turbine subjected to wind and wave actions. The dynamic motions, structural responses, power production and tension leg responses are analyzed. The model is implemented using the HAWC2 code. Several issues such as negative damping, rotor configuration (upwind or downwind rotor) and tower shadow effects are discussed to study the power performance and structural integrity of the system. The operational and survival load cases considering the stochastic wave and wind loading are analyzed to investigate the functionality of the tension leg spar‐type wind turbine. Amelioration of the negative damping applied for this concept reduces the structural dynamic responses, which are important for fatigue life. It is found that the responses induced by wave and wind actions at the wave frequencies are not affected much by the aerodynamic excitation or damping forces. Because of the nonlinear effects of the tension leg, all of the motion responses are strongly coupled. The global responses of upwind and downwind versions of the turbine are found to be close because the tower shadow has a limited effect on the global responses. However, the structural dynamic responses of the blades are more affected by the tower shadow. In this study, the extrapolation methods are applied to efficiently estimate the maximum responses. The maximum response is found to occur in the survival cases as a result of the wave actions and the increased aerodynamic drag forces on the tower. The results show that the maximum responses corresponding to the up‐crossing rate of 0.0001 (corresponding to the maximum response within a 3 hour period) can be expressed by the mean plus 3 to 5 standard deviations. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Load response of a two-rotor floating wind turbine undergoing blade-pitch system faults

Multi-rotor floating wind turbines are among the innovative technologies proposed in the last decade in the effort to reduce the cost of wind energy. These systems are able to offer advantages in terms of smaller blades deployed offshore, cheaper operations, fewer installations, and sharing of the floating platform. As the blade-pitch actuation system is prone to failures, the assessment of the associated load scenarios is commonly required. Load assessment of blade-pitch fault scenarios has only been performed for single-rotor solutions. In this work, we address the effect of blade-pitch system faults and emergency shutdown on the dynamics and loads of a two-rotor floating wind turbine. The concept considered employs two NREL 5-MW baseline wind turbines and the OO-Star semi-submersible platform. The blade-pitch faults investigated are blade blockage and runaway, that is, the seizure at a given pitch angle and the uncontrolled actuation of one of the blades, respectively. Blade-pitch faults lead to a significant increase in the structural loads of the system, especially for runaway fault conditions. Emergency shutdown significantly excites the platform pitch motion, the tower-bottom bending moment, and tower torsional loads, while suppressing the faulty blade flapwise bending moment after a short peak. Shutdown delay between rotors increases significantly the maxima of the torsional loads acting on the tower. Comparison of blade loads with data from single-rotor spar-type study show great similarity, highlighting that the faulty blade loads are not affected by (1) the type of platform used and (2) the multi-rotor deployment.     

脉动风速和电网故障作用下双馈风电机组传动系统动态响应特性

为研究大容量双馈风电机组在脉动风速、齿轮时变啮合特性和电网扰动等多因素耦合作用下传动系统的动态响应特性,在Matlab/Simulink平台上,采用集中质量法建立了机组传动系统弯扭耦合动力学模型,并结合双馈风电机组运行及控制模型,形成机组传动系统的机电耦合模型,分析了机组在多种脉动风速及其与电网对地短路故障同时作用条件下传动系统的动态响应特性。计算结果表明：机组传动系统对低频振动频率具有欠阻尼特性,当脉动风速的脉动频率接近传动系统的一阶固有频率时会与传动系统产生共振;通过对比有无齿轮时变啮合激励,可以甄别传动系统与齿轮啮合激励的共振点;电网三相对地短路故障引起的传动系统振动最为剧烈,其最大振动峰峰值随风速的增加非线性增大,随风速湍流强度的增加线性增大。     

考虑塔架和叶片动力耦合的随机风载下风机结构动响应分析

考虑叶片和塔架的动力耦合作用,建立了5 MW风机整体结构的有限元模型,计算其在随机风速下的动响应。为分析叶片和塔架的动力耦合对风机结构动响应的影响,计算比较了刚性支撑的叶片、简化的风机和整体风机3种模型在风载下的动响应位移和应力。计算结果表明:由于叶片和塔架的耦合作用,叶片的位移响应最大增加约20%,但是塔架的位移响应最大降低了约60%。文章还分析了叶片旋转过程中方位角对塔架位移响应的影响。在叶片的一个旋转周期内,塔架的响应幅值会有较大的波动,最大响应幅值约为最小响应幅值的3倍。     

A review of fault ride through of PV and wind renewable energies in grid codes

This paper presents a comprehensive review of fault ride through (FRT) in the grid code of 38 selected countries with an emphasis on renewable energy (REN) sources–related rules. Grid codes are the rules legislated usually by the transmission system operators (TSOs) to determine the grid integration requirements of electrical power generators. Each country establishes its grid code for satisfying the minimum required technical criteria and revises it frequently to cope with new modifications of the utility. Growing the penetration of REN sources have influenced many operational aspects of the power system such as protection, power quality, reliability, and stability. Thereupon, regulations must ensure the power system's secure and controllable operation of REN sources. FRT is one of the main parts of the grid code, and its characteristics affect the performance and rating of power system apparatus. FRT defines the performance of electric power generators during and in postfault conditions. FRT of solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind turbines (WTs) as the main REN sources of energy has great importance in the grid codes. In this paper, a comparison of FRTs in the grid code of 38 countries, including low‐voltage ride through (LVRT), zero‐voltage ride through (ZVRT), and high‐voltage ride through (HVRT) are provided and surveyed.     

Modelling and analysis of floating spar‐type wind turbine drivetrain

This paper studies the drivetrain dynamics of a 750 kW spar‐type floating wind turbine (FWT). The drivetrain studied is a high‐speed generator, one‐stage planetary, two‐stage parallel and three‐point support type. The response analysis is carried out in two steps. First, global aero‐hydro‐elastic‐servo time‐domain analyses are performed using HAWC2. The main shaft loads, which include the axial forces, shear forces and bending moments, are obtained in this integrated wind–wave response analysis. These loads are then used as inputs for the multi‐body drivetrain time‐domain analyses in SIMPACK. The investigations are largely based on comparisons of the main shaft loads and internal drivetrain responses from 1 h simulations. The tooth contact forces, bearing loads and gear deflections are the internal drivetrain response variables studied. The comparisons are based on the mean values, standard deviations and maximum values extrapolated using a 10 ^{? 5} up‐crossing rate. Both operational and parked conditions are considered. The investigation consists of three parts. First, the responses are compared between the FWT and its equivalent land‐based version. Second, the contributions from the main shaft loads (shear forces, axial forces and bending moments) and nacelle motions are investigated individually. Third, an improved four‐point support (4PT) system is studied and compared against the original three‐point support system for the FWT. The results show that there are general increases in the standard deviations of the main shaft loads and internal drivetrain responses in the FWT. In addition, these increases are a result of the increased main shaft loads in the FWT, especially the non‐torque loads. Last, the 4PT system, when applied to a FWT drivetrain, significantly reduces the tooth contact forces and bearing loads in the low‐speed stage, but this result comes at the expense of increased main bearing radial loads. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Quantitative and qualitative behavior analysis of a DFIG wind energy conversion system by a wind gust and converter faults

A wind gust can cause severe dynamic conditions that affect the operational behavior of the whole doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) wind energy conversion system and, as a result, the quality of power exchanged with the grid. In addition, it can cause great disturbances to critical system's variables with possible damages to the system's construction—to mechanical or electrical part. The knowledge of DFIG reaction in such conditions is useful for both protection issues and the risk assessment concerning system's tolerance, maintenance costs and revenue losses, because of the disconnection from the grid. In this paper, a quantitative and qualitative behavior analysis of a 2 MW DFIG wind energy conversion system under a wind gust and converter faults, which has been carried out via simulation, is presented. The pitch controller parameters impact to its behavior, when a gust appears, has been investigated. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Collapse analysis of wind turbine tower under the coupled effects of wind and near‐field earthquake

In this paper, the pattern of wind turbine tower collapse as a result of the coupled effects of wind and an intense, near‐field earthquake is investigated. The constitutive relation of the tower cylinder steel is simulated via a nonlinear kinematic hardening model, and the specific value of each parameter in the constitutive model is provided. A precise model of the tower structure coupled with the blade is created using a nonlinear, finite element method. This method is compared with the results from a static pushover test of a small cylindrical tower to validate the finite element modeling method in this research. Two earthquake wave sets are selected as inputs. One contains 20 near‐field velocity pulse‐like ground motion waves with various pulse periods; the other contains 20 ordinary far‐field ground motion waves. A wind turbine tower with a hub height of 60 m is selected as an example for analysis. The dynamic response of this tower as a result of the coupled effects of the two ground motion wave sets and a transient wind load is calculated using nonlinear time‐history analysis. The calculation results shows that the average horizontal displacement of the tower top as a result of the near‐field velocity pulse‐like ground motion is 33% larger than the case with far‐field ground motion. Finally, the seismic collapse vulnerability curve of this wind turbine tower is calculated. The seismic collapse capacity of the tower is evaluated, and the seismic collapse pattern of the tower is analyzed.     

并网风电机组输出电能闪变和谐波指标的比较与分析

对根据IEC 61400-21标准进行测试的四款风电机组,即750 kW定桨失速型机组、2 MW变速恒频全馈机组、2.5 MW变速恒频双馈机组和运达（WD77-1500 A/1500 kW）变速恒频双馈机组的电能质量测试和评估报告进行了分析,通过比较风电机组闪变的测量值、谐波电流值,可对各种风电机组在不同方面的性能有一定的了解。     

不同海况及伺服系统作用下10 MW单桩式风力机地震易损性研究

为探究不同海况及伺服系统下单桩式近海风力机的地震易损性,以DTU 10 MW风力机为研究对象,建立风浪相关的地震-湍流风-波浪多物理场模型,研究其在变速变桨伺服系统下的动力特性,基于增量动力分析方法评估其地震易损性。结果表明：变速变桨伺服系统可有效缓解风力机高风速下无地震作用时的塔顶振动;当风轮在大推力下,较小的波浪载荷一定程度上可降低风力机塔顶振动及塔底弯矩;随地震动强度增加,风力机各临界损伤状态失效概率逐渐增加;风力机地震易损性主要由地震动强度决定,波浪载荷与湍流风载荷对风力机地震易损性影响较小。     

Fatigue load computation of wind turbine gearboxes by coupled finite element,multi‐body system and aerodynamic analysis

The main concern of the present publication is the computation of dynamic loads of wind turbine power trains, with particular emphasis on planetary gearbox loads. The applied mathematical approach relies on a non‐linear finite element method, which is extended by multi‐body system functionalities, and aerodynamics based on the blade element momentum theory. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.