Characterizing a fiber-based frequency comb with electro-optic modulator

We report on the characterization of a commercial- core fiber-based frequency comb equipped with an intracavity free-space electro-optic modulator (EOM). We investigate the relationship between the noise of the pump diode and the laser relative intensity noise (RIN) and demonstrate the use of a low-noise current supply to substantially reduce the laser RIN. By measuring several critical transfer functions, we evaluate the potential of the EOM for comb repetition rate stabilization. We also evaluate the coupling to other relevant parameters of the comb. From these measurements, we infer the capabilities of the femtosecond laser comb to generate very-low-phase-noise microwave signals when phase-locked to a high-spectral-purity ultra-stable laser.     

Broadband Intensity Stabilization of a Diode-pumped Monolithic Miniature Nd: YAG Ring Laser

Abstract

We have built an electronic servo system to reduce the intensity noise in a diode-pumped single-mode monolithic Nd: YAG ring laser with a maximum output power of 350 mW. The servo used two stabilization systems operating simultaneously over two different frequency ranges, each of which detected a fraction of the laser output, amplified and phase shifted the detected signals and used the resultant signals to control the current to the laser diode pump. We achieved a reduction in intensity noise of up to a factor of 30 for frequencies up to about 1 kHz, with some noise reduction observable up to about 30 kHz. At frequencies between around 30 and 200 kHz the intensity noise was increased by a factor of approximately 1·4. In the frequency range 200 to 300 kHz, around the relaxation oscillation frequency of 260 kHz, the intensity noise was suppressed, the reduction factor being approximately 14 at 260 kHz.     

Vector characterization of photodetectors, photoreceivers, andoptical pulse sources by time-domain pulse response measurements

Deconvolution of measurement system effects from pulse response measurements is demonstrated to yield reproducible, accurate characterization of the impulse response (and vector frequency response) of a photodetector or photoreceiver, as well as the intensity waveform of an optical pulse. Calibration is based on a <3-ps FWHM (full width at half maximum) optical pulse and a 50-GHz 3-dB bandwidth electrical sampling system. Vector characterization of a photodetector/photoreceiver to >40 GHz and an optical pulse source to >30 GHz are demonstrated. Calibration and effects of noise are discussed     

Determination of the Coordinates of the Center of a Gaussian Beam by Means of a Matrix Photodetector Using a Weighting Method

A weighting algorithm to determine the coordinates of the center of a Gaussian laser beam projected onto a matrix photodetector is considered. The influence of the internal noise of the photodetector, the maximum brightness of the signal at the beam maximum, and the beam radius on the precision of the algorithm is investigated. Recommendations on image processing are presented.     

Single Pixel Black Phosphorus Photodetector for Near‐Infrared Imaging

Infrared imaging systems have wide range of military or civil applications and 2D nanomaterials have recently emerged as potential sensing materials that may outperform conventional ones such as HgCdTe, InGaAs, and InSb. As an example, 2D black phosphorus (BP) thin film has a thickness‐dependent direct bandgap with low shot noise and noncryogenic operation for visible to mid‐infrared photodetection. In this paper, the use of a single‐pixel photodetector made with few‐layer BP thin film for near‐infrared imaging applications is demonstrated. The imaging is achieved by combining the photodetector with a digital micromirror device to encode and subsequently reconstruct the image based on compressive sensing algorithm. Stationary images of a near‐infrared laser spot (λ = 830 nm) with up to 64 × 64 pixels are captured using this single‐pixel BP camera with 2000 times of measurements, which is only half of the total number of pixels. The imaging platform demonstrated in this work circumvents the grand challenges of scalable BP material growth for photodetector array fabrication and shows the efficacy of utilizing the outstanding performance of BP photodetector for future high‐speed infrared camera applications.     

Resonator fiber optic gyro employing a semiconductor laser

Resonator fiber optic gyro (RFOG) based on the Sagnac effect has the potential to achieve the inertial navigation system requirement with a short sensing coil. Semiconductor laser is one of the key elements for integration and miniaturization of the RFOG. In this paper, an RFOG employing a semiconductor laser is demonstrated. The model of the laser frequency noise induced error in the RFOG is described. To attenuate the laser frequency noise induced error, active frequency stabilization is applied. An online laser frequency noise observation is built, as a powerful optimum criterion for the loop parameters. Moreover, the laser frequency noise observation method is developed as a new measurement tool. With a fast digital proportional integrator based on a single field programmable gate array applied in the active stabilization loop, the laser frequency noise is reduced to 0.021 Hz (1σ). It is equivalent to a rotation rate of 0.07°/h, and close to the shot noise limit for the RFOG. As a result, a bias stability of open-loop gyro output is 9.5°/h (1σ) for the integration time 10 s in an hour observed in the RFOG. To the best of our knowledge, this result is the best long-term stability using the miniature semiconductor laser.     

Quantum noise of laser diodes

Abstract

Single-mode laser theory for semiconductor lasers predicts sub-Poissonian light generation for a laser quietly driven far above threshold. Experiments have shown however that only few laser diodes exhibits such reduced intensity noise. We present a review of different mechanisms that have been proposed to explain the excess noise observed in semiconductor lasers, including imperfect anticorrelations in multimode lasers, and Petermann excess noise factor in single-mode lasers.     

Stability of short, single-mode erbium-doped fiber lasers

We conducted a detailed study of the stability of short, erbium-doped fiber lasers fabricated with two UV-induced Bragg gratings written into the doped fiber. We find that the relative intensity noise of single-longitudinal-mode fiber grating lasers is approximately 3 orders of magnitude lower than that of a single-frequency 1.523-mum helium-neon laser. The frequency noise spectrum contains few resonances, none of which exceeds 0.6 kHz/Hz(1/2) rms; the integrated rms frequency noise from 50 Hz to 63 kHz is 36 kHz. We also demonstrate a simple method for monitoring the laser power and number of oscillating modes during laser fabrication.     

Advanced noise reduction techniques for ultra-low phase noise optical-to-microwave division with femtosecond fiber combs

We report what we believe to be the lowest phase noise optical-to-microwave frequency division using fiber-based femtosecond optical frequency combs: a residual phase noise of -120 dBc/Hz at 1 Hz offset from an 11.55 GHz carrier frequency. Furthermore, we report a detailed investigation into the fundamental noise sources which affect the division process itself. Two frequency combs with quasi-identical configurations are referenced to a common ultrastable cavity laser source. To identify each of the limiting effects, we implement an ultra-low noise carrier-suppression measurement system, which avoids the detection and amplification noise of more conventional techniques. This technique suppresses these unwanted sources of noise to very low levels. In the Fourier frequency range of ～200 Hz to 100 kHz, a feed-forward technique based on a voltage-controlled phase shifter delivers a further noise reduction of 10 dB. For lower Fourier frequencies, optical power stabilization is implemented to reduce the relative intensity noise which causes unwanted phase noise through power-to-phase conversion in the detector. We implement and compare two possible control schemes based on an acousto-optical modulator and comb pump current. We also present wideband measurements of the relative intensity noise of the fiber comb.     

Use of an additive noise to transfer spatial information from a laser to a stimulated Raman beam

A spatial signal cannot be converted from a laser wavelength to a stimulated Raman scattering wavelength if the laser intensity is too weak to obtain the stimulated Raman. The addition of high intensity spatial noise can help the Raman excitation if averaging occurs in the nonlinear system to restore the spatial signal. In order to have a sufficient quality of spatial information transfer, optimization of the noise intensity dependent on the signal intensity must be carried out. A model based on this idea is studied.     

Speckle noise in bar-code scanning systems--power spectral density and SNR

Laser-based flying-spot scanners are strongly affected by speckle that is intrinsic to coherent illumination of diffusing targets. In such systems information is usually extracted by processing the derivative of a photodetector signal that results from collecting over the detector's aperture the scattered light of a laser beam scanning a bar code. Because the scattered light exhibits a time-varying speckle pattern, the signal is corrupted by speckle noise. In this paper we investigate the power spectral density and total noise power of such signals. We also analyze the influence of speckle noise on edge detection and derive estimates for a signal-to-noise ratio when a laser beam scans different sequences of edges. The theory is illustrated by applying the results to Gaussian scanning beams for which we derive closed form expressions.     

Amplitude noise and linewidth reduction of an Ar+ laser

Frequency modulation spectroscopy is used to frequency stabilize an Ar⁺ laser at 515 nm with respect to a commercial passive cavity. Two transducers, a slow and a fast one, are used. The fast transducer is also used to perform amplitude stabilization of a laser beam. Measured amplitude and frequency spectral noise densities are reported. A simplified scheme of the circuitry used to reduce amplitude noise is shown. Noise characteristics of the realized system are adequate to perform spectroscopy of hyperfine-structure transitions of molecular iodine     

Compact light-emitting-diode sun photometer for atmospheric optical depth measurements

A new compact light-emitting diode (LED) sun photometer, in which a LED is used as a spectrally selective photodetector as well as a nonlinear feedback element in the operational amplifier, has been developed. The output voltage that is proportional to the logarithm of the incident solar intensity permits the direct measurement of atmospheric optical depths in selected spectral bands. Measurements made over Ahmedabad, India, show good agreement, within a few percent, of optical depths derived with a LED as a photodetector in a linear mode and with a LED as both a photodetector and a feedback element in an operational amplifier in log mode. The optical depths are also found to compare well with those obtained simultaneously with a conventional filter photometer.     

原子磁力仪中的检测光强噪声补偿方法研究

为解决原子磁力仪检测光强残余噪声问题,提出了检测光强噪声数字补偿方法。首先根据原子自 旋进动检测基本理论,通过光弹调制器和锁相放大器进行线偏光的光旋角检测,利用噪声衰减器对检测光功率 进行正弦调制拟合得到补偿系数,然后使用光弹调制器调制频率的二倍频信号对一倍频信号进行后处理修正, 实现检测光强噪声压制。得到补偿系数后可将用于幅度调制的硬件甚至前级稳光强装置移除,仅利用数字补偿 技术即可实现光强噪声抑制。搭建基于K?Rb?21Ne气室的磁力仪实验装置,在无自旋交换弛豫态（Spin?Exchange Relaxation?Free, SERF）下开展检测光强噪声补偿实验, 结果显示光旋角检测信号的噪声被压制了 13. 2 dB@3 Hz。应用此噪声补偿方法,避免了不同光路所引入的非共模噪声,并在前级稳光强的基础上实现了 二次稳光强。此补偿方法可进行补偿系数的定期校准,减小系统状态改变及不稳定性带来的影响,对于提升原 子磁力仪灵敏度具有重要意义。     

Stabilization system of a photoinjector drive laser

In the Etude d'un LaSer Accordable linear accelerator, electron bunches consist of trains of picosecond pulses extracted from a photocathode by a drive laser system. The fluctuations of the mean intensity of pulse trains at the output of the laser system are around 3% rms. A feed-forward stabilization system that reduces these fluctuations to better than 0.7% rms for periods of 5 min is presented.     

Photon signal detection and evaluation in the adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscope

To select a suitable photodetector for an adaptive optics scanning laser ophthalmoscope (AOSLO) and evaluate its performance, we characterized the signal and noise properties in the AOSLO photon detection and derived the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Using the SNR as the main criterion, we chose the best detector from a selection of four photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) and three avalanche photodiodes (APDs). We conducted a comprehensive evaluation of the performance of the selected detector on our AOSLO. The study presents a practical strategy that can be used to test the photodetector for either initial evaluation or subsequent performance in in-line inspection.     

Performance comparison of an all-fiber-based laser Doppler vibrometer for remote acoustical signal detection using short and long coherence length lasers

All-fiber laser Doppler vibrometer systems have great potential in the application of remote acoustic detection. However, due to the requirement for a long operating distance, a long coherence length laser is required, which can drive the system cost high. In this paper, a system using a short coherence length laser is proposed and demonstrated. Experimental analysis indicates that the multi-longitudinal modes of the laser cause detection noise and that the unequal length between two paths (local oscillator path and transmission path) increases the intensity and the frequency components of the noise. In order to reduce the noise, the optical length of the two paths needs to be balanced, within the coherence length of the source. We demonstrate that adopting a tunable optical delay to compensate the unequal length significantly reduces the noise. In a comparison of the detection results by using a short coherence laser and a long coherence laser, our developed system gives a good performance on the acoustic signal detection from three meters away.     

Ultimate linewidth reduction of a semiconductor laser frequency-stabilized to a Fabry-Pérot interferometer

We report a theoretical dynamical analysis on effect of semiconductor laser phase noise on the achievable linewidth when locked to a Fabry-Perot cavity fringe using a modulation-demodulation frequency stabilization technique such as the commonly used Pound-Drever-Hall frequency locking scheme. We show that, in the optical domain, the modulation-demodulation operation produces, in the presence of semiconductor laser phase noise, two kinds of excess noise, which could be much above the shot noise limit, namely, conversion noise (PM-to-AM) and intermodulation noise. We show that, in typical stabilization conditions, the ultimate semiconductor laser linewidth reduction can be severely limited by the intermodulation excess noise. The modulation-demodulation operation produces the undesirable nonlinear intermodulation effect through which the phase noise spectral components of the semiconductor laser, in the vicinity of even multiples of the modulation frequency, are downconverted into the bandpass of the frequency control loop. This adds a spurious signal, at the modulation frequency, to the error signal and limits the performance of the locked semiconductor laser. This effect, reported initially in the microwave domain using the quasistatic approximation, can be considerably reduced by a convenient choice of the modulation frequency.     

Errors in determination of the refractive index for axially symmetric inhomogeneity

We estimate the error of a multichannel laser refractometer in the investigation of an axially symmetric structure. We consider the effect of photon noise and determine the contribution of the intrinsic noise of the photodetector. We take into account the error due to fluctuation of the refractive index along the path of the light rays, and also consider the interpolation error. Translated from Izmeritel'naya Tekhnika, No. 5, pp. 28–30, May, 1995.     

Diode laser phase noise influence on the ultimate performance of its frequency stabilization to a Mach-Zehnder interferometer fringe

We report a detailed investigation on the effect of semiconductor laser phase noise on the achievable frequency stability when locked to a Mach-Zehnder interferometer fringe. We show that the modulation-demodulation operation produces in the presence of laser phase noise two kinds of excess noise, which could be much above the shot noise limit, namely: conversion noise (PM-to-AM) and intermodulation noise. We show that in typical stabilization conditions, the frequency stability of the locked laser is limited by the intermodulation excess noise. This effect, reported initially in the microwave domain, can be considerably reduced by a convenient choice of the modulation frequency. To our knowledge, this is the first time such a phenomenon is reported in the optical domain.