Development of phonological sensitivity in 2- to 5-year-old children.

This study examined phonological sensitivity in 238 children from middle- to upper-income families and 118 children from lower-income families across different levels of linguistic complexity. Children ranged in age from 2 to 5 years. Overall, the results indicated that as children increased in age, phonological sensitivity both increased in absolute terms and became more stable. Significant social class differences in growth of phonological sensitivity were also obtained. Phonological sensitivity at different levels of linguistic complexity (e.g., syllables, phonemes) was substantially interrelated at each age and predicted word reading ability in older children independently of language skills and letter knowledge. These results indicate that phonological sensitivity can be assessed in young preschool children and that lower levels of phonological sensitivity may serve as developmental precursors to higher levels of phonological sensitivity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acquisition of mental state language in Mandarin- and Cantonese-speaking children.

Children's theory of mind appears to develop from a focus on desire to a focus on belief. However, it is not clear (a) whether this pattern is universal and (b) whether it could also be explained by linguistic and sociocultural factors. This study examined mental state language in 10 Mandarin-speaking (21–27 months) and 8 Cantonese-speaking (18–44 months) toddlers. The results suggest a pattern of theory-of-mind development similar to that in English, with early use of desire terms followed by other mental state references. However, the Chinese-speaking children used desire terms much earlier, and the use of terms for thinking was very infrequent, even for Mandarin-speaking adults. This finding suggests a consistency in the overall sequence, but variation in the timing of beginning and end points, in children's theory-of-mind development across cultures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptual perspective taking in 2- to 6-year-old children.

Tested whether young children could infer another persons' perspective by showing 80 2–6 yr olds 2 videotaped stories which included audio information describing the action, and later reshowing the films to the Ss and their mothers, with the audio turned off. The Ss were then asked questions about their mothers' knowledge of the action and asked to justify their answers. Few or none of the 2- and 3-yr-olds answered nonegocentrically but most to all of the 4-, 5-, and 6-yr-olds did. The ability to make a correct inference appeared somewhat earlier than the ability to justify it. Results are compared to those from other studies. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anxiety responses of parents during and after the hospitalization of their 5- to 11-year-old children

Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) is an autoimmune disease of the skin and mucous membranes characterized by an autoantibody response against an epidermal cadherin. We performed high resolution HLA class II typing in 19 patients with PV from Rawalpindi, Pakistan and 19 non-Jewish European PV patients from Boston by sequence-specific oligonucleotide probe hybridization. The results were compared with two separate ethnically matched control populations. WE found that PV patients from Pakistan had significantly increased frequencies of DRB1*1404 (p = 0.01), DQA1*0101 (p = 0.02), and DQB1*0503 (p = 0.01). Among the patients of non-Jewish European ancestry, DRB1*1401 (p < 10(-6)), DQA1*0101 (p < 10(-5)) and DQB1*0503 (p < 10(-6)), were increased in PV patients. Formal linkage analysis between the major histocompatibility complex and the PV antibody was performed in 67 relatives of the 19 Pakistani patients. The results showed strong evidence for linkage of HLA-DRB1*1404, DQA1*0101, DQB1*0503, with the presence of PV antibody in relatives' families with a significant logarithm of the odds score of 6.06. Based on the three dimensional structure of class II molecules, we propose that HLA-DQA1*0101 and DQB1*0503, encode a negatively charged P9 peptide binding pocket of the DQ molecule and are significantly associated with susceptibility to PV in non-Jewish populations.     

Emotionality, emotion regulation, and adaptation among 5- to 8-year-old children.

This study investigated relations between emotionality, emotion regulation, and children's behavioral adaptation in a longitudinal design. Mothers rated emotionality and emotion regulation related to anger, fear, and positive emotions-exuberance for 151 children at age 5 and later at age 6 years 6 months. Emotionality and emotion regulation measures were modestly related. Preschool ratings at age 6 (n=125), maternal ratings at age 6 years 6 months (n=133), and elementary school ratings at age 8 (n=135) of problems and competence were also collected. High anger emotionality and low regulation of positive emotions and exuberance predicted externalizing problem behavior and prosocial behavior. High fear emotionality and low fear regulation predicted internalizing problem behavior. There were few interactive effects of emotionality and regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nutrient intakes of 2- to 10-year-old American children: 10-year trends

Nutrient intakes of American children aged 2 to 10 years were compared for the years 1978 and 1988 using a unique nutrient assessment system designed and developed by the Nutrition Department at General Mills. This system integrated data from three sources: 14-day food consumption diaries collected from 4,000 households in the Market Research Corporation of America Menu Census panel surveys; serving-size data from the spring 1977 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey; and nutrient data from the Michigan State University Nutrient Data Bank. The results indicate that energy and macronutrient intakes remained fairly constant over the 10-year period. Average daily vitamin and mineral intakes were lower in 1988 than in 1978 for the majority of those studied; however, most nutrient levels remained over 100% of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). For more than 50% of the population, the intakes of calcium, vitamin B-6, and zinc were below the RDAs. Our findings indicate the need for continued monitoring of the impact of changing food consumption patterns on the diets of American children.     

Specific cognitive abilities in 5- to 12-year-old twins

Eleven tests of specific cognitive abilities were administered to 108 pairs of young twins (average age of 7.6 years). Internal consistencies are high for all measures except Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices and Delayed Picture Memory. Two-month, test-retest reliabilities are also reported. The twin sample is representative in terms of both means and variances when compared to normative data from standardization samples, and twin correlations for height and weight are similar to those obtained in six other twin studies. Because all measures were highly correlated with age (average correlation with age was 0.64), scores were aged adjusted. Previous twin studies of specific cognitive abilities in adolescents and adults found genetic variance for nearly all tests. In contrast, our study of young twins yielded significant genetic influence for only 1 of the 11 measures, PIAT Reading Recognition, and suggested the possibility of genetic influence on 2 others (vocabulary and WISC-R mazes). Environmental influences seem to dominate, particularly for nonverbal measures, as children begin their education. In accord with other studies, we found that between-family environmental factors have an important influence on the development of nearly all of the measures of specific cognitive abilities. However, we found that our tests of perceptual speed and memory were substantially influenced by within-family environmental factors independent of error.     

Enamel defects in 4- to 5-year-old children in fluoridated and non-fluoridated parts of Cheshire, UK

The aim of this study was to compare the prevalence of developmental defects of enamel in the deciduous dentition of 4- to 5-year-old children residing in fluoridated (1 ppmF) and non-fluoridated (less than 0.2 ppmF) communities in Cheshire, UK. The significant difference in the prevalence of developmental defects of enamel between the two communities was accounted for by the higher prevalence of diffuse opacities in fluoridated Nantwich (29%), than in non-fluoridated Northwich (14%). The results also showed that when controlling for the age at which parents claimed toothbrushing commenced, the children in fluoridated Nantwich still had significantly more diffuse defects than the children in Northwich.     

Supportive or suggestive: Do human figure drawings help 5- to 7-year-old children to report touch?

The authors examined the accuracy of information elicited from seventy-nine 5- to 7-year-old children about a staged event that included physical contact-touching. Four to six weeks later, children's recall for the event was assessed using an interview protocol analogous to those used in forensic investigations with children. Following the verbal interview, children were asked about touch when provided with human figure drawings (drawings only), following practice using the human figure drawings (drawings with instruction), or without drawings (verbal questions only). In this touch-inquiry phase of the interview, most children provided new information. Children in the drawings conditions reported more incorrect information than those in the verbal questions condition. Forensically relevant errors were infrequent and were rarely elaborated on. Although asking children to talk about innocuous touch may lead them to report unreliable information, especially when human figure drawings are used as aids, errors are reduced when open-ended prompts are used to elicit further information about reported touches. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A modification of play audiometry to assess speech discrimination ability in severe-profoundly deaf 2- to 4-year-old children

OBJECTIVE: The aim was to develop an assessment procedure that was independent of language and speech production ability, to test speech feature discrimination in severe-profoundly deaf children 2 to 4 yr of age. DESIGN: The procedure being trialed was adapted from existing procedures. The child was required to respond with a game-like motor response to a "change" in a speech stimulus that was being presented repeatedly through a speaker. The change occurred at randomly determined times, and false alarm responses were measured during the waiting periods (while the child waited for the change). Two- to four-yr-old normally hearing children and hearing-impaired children using hearing aids and a group of 4-yr-old hearing-impaired children using cochlear implants were assessed on the task. RESULTS: More than 82% of the 3- and 4-yr-old normally hearing and hearing-impaired children were able to complete the testing for the eight speech sound contrasts within three 20 minute sessions. Fifty percent of the 2-yr-old normally hearing and hearing-impaired children were able to condition and complete the task. All of the normally hearing children who completed the task successfully discriminated all speech sound contrasts. The performance of the hearing-impaired children using hearing aids was influenced by the degree of hearing loss and the type of speech contrast being tested. Similarly, the average performance of the children using cochlear implants was better for easier contrasts such as /ba/bi/ with contrasting vowel formant cues. CONCLUSIONS: This procedure has potential for use as a reliable clinical and research tool for assessing the development of auditory discrimination ability in 2- to 4-yr-old severe-profoundly deaf children.     

Linguistic environment of 1- to 2-year-old twins.

Investigated differences in the language learning environments of singletons and twins, with special reference to pragmatic factors that might be expected to differ in dyadic and triadic interactive situations. Six twin pairs and 12 singleton children (all firstborn) were observed in natural interactions with their mothers, once at 15 mo of age and again at 21 mo of age. Findings reveal that twins were lower than singletons on all measures of language development and that their language learning environments were significantly different. Although twin mothers spoke and interacted with their children as much as singleton mothers when twins were analyzed together, when analyzed as individuals, twin children received less speech directed specifically to them, participated in fewer and shorter episodes of joint attentional focus, and had fewer and shorter conversations with their mothers. Twin mothers were also more directive in their interactional styles. Correlational analyses indicated that variation of these language learning environment factors for the sample as a whole, and variation for some of these factors within the twin group itself, were related to early language growth. It is proposed that both the quantitative and qualitative differences observed in the language learning environments of singletons and twins derive from the nature of the triadic situation and that these differences have important effects on the child's early language development. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spatial matching in 1?- to 4?-year-old children.

Spatial matching—the ability to distribute search effort in accord with the distribution of hidden resources—was studied in 1?- to 4?-year-old children. When 36- and 53-month-old children were uninformed as to the whereabouts of treats, they began searching comprehensively. They found almost all of the hidden treats, avoided repetitious searches, and tended to search groups of neighboring sites exhaustively. When children saw the treats being hidden, the onset of search was more selective. Children as young as 19 months of age showed a simple spatial heuristic by beginning their gathering activities in areas where they saw a dense concentration of treats. However, movement strategies of 35- and 55-month-old children produced selective patterns of search in both high- and low-density distributions. The principal development was the appropriate use of win-shift responses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Salivary lactobacilli explain dental caries better than salivary mutants streptococci in 4-5-year-old children

The present comparative study was undertaken to determine which of the bacteria, lactobacilli (lbc) and mutans streptococci (ms), in saliva better explains the variation of caries in 2728 South African 4-5-yr-old children. Caries was diagnosed according to WHO criteria. For lbc, the Dentocult system was used. The number of ms in stimulated saliva was counted on MSB agar plates. For correction of confounding factors, data on the frequency of intake of sweets were derived from extensive interviews. Oral hygiene was determined according to the simplified debris index of Greene & Vermillion. Simple correlation analyses between dmfs and bacterial counts were done for the total material and for three caries intervals by calculating Spearman's and Pearson's coefficients of correlation. Multivariate regression analyses were done on all intervals to correct for the confounding effects of regular intake of sweets, presence of salivary ms or lbc, and oral hygiene. Of the children, 68% had detectable lbc in the saliva, and 74% had ms. Except for children with more than 6 dmfs, the explanatory values, i.e., percentage of variation in dmfs explained, were higher for the lbc than for ms. Before correction, the values for the total material were 15 vs 6%; for children with caries, 7 vs 5%; for those with 1-6 dmfs, 5 vs 0.4%; and for those with more than 6 dmfs, 0.3 vs 2%. All r-values were reduced after correction, indicating that the confounders explain some of the correlation between dmfs and bacterial count.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Intraocular pressure in an unselected sample of 6- to 7-year-old Chinese children

Intraocular pressure (IOP) was measured in one-hundred-twenty-three 6- to 7-year-old Chinese children. Children who had at least one myopic parent had higher IOP's than children with two nonmyopic parents. There was a trend for myopic children to have higher IOP's than nonmyopic children.     

The state of the state mental hospital 1996

OBJECTIVES: This analytical review is intended to update the author's earlier writings on the position of the state mental hospital within the spectrum of services for long-term mental patients and to provide perspective for the next generation of service planners. METHODS: Findings and commentary are organized around four major questions. First, what is the prevailing view of state mental hospitals today, and how does it compare with the view that existed in the first half of this century? Second, what individuals tend to be served in state mental hospitals today? Third, what has been the fate of mentally ill persons who are no longer served in state mental hospitals? Fourth, what is an appropriate role for the state mental hospital in today's uncertain and rapidly changing systems of care? Source material consists of periodical articles suggested in MEDLINE searches, plus newspaper reports, recent books on mental health service systems, and a variety of writings found in the "fugitive" literature generally not indexed in traditional archives. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Individual state mental hospitals vary in the composition of their resident populations, the content of their services, and the overall quality of their care. Although they have been superseded by community-based service structures in some places, they continue in general, as the result of their multifunctionality, to occupy a critical place in systems of care. Renewed efforts to integrate them as full partners within those systems must be undertaken.     

Iron deficiency in 1- to 3-year-old children. A pediatric failure?

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia in children aged 1 to 3 years in an urban population. DESIGN: Venous blood was measured for levels of hemoglobin, ferritin, free erythrocyte protoporphyrin, and lead in children seen for well-child visits. Children with histories of chronic illness, prematurity, blood dyscrasias, and acute illness were excluded. SETTING: The private practice offices of 4 pediatricians in the New York City area. PATIENTS: A consecutive sample of 504 children aged 1 to 3 years was included. RESULTS: More than one third (35%) of the children demonstrated evidence of iron insufficiency; 7% were iron deficient without anemia, and 10% had iron deficiency anemia. CONCLUSION: Because the association of iron deficiency anemia with mental and psychomotor impairment during the first 2 years of life no longer seems to be in doubt, the high prevalence of iron deficiency anemia found in the 1- to 2-year-old children in this study is disturbing. This suggests the need for greater efforts at the prevention of iron deficiency during the second year of life.     

The relationship between magnesium and calcium kinetics in 9- to 14-year-old children

A. J. Tomarken and R. J. Davidson (1994) reported that defensiveness is characterized by relative left frontal brain activation. Because they examined only women, gender differences in this relation are possible. In the present study, resting alpha asymmetries in right-handed men (n = 25) and women (n = 60) were related to defensiveness, measured by the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire L scale. These results were similar to those of Tomarken and Davidson in that defensiveness correlated positively with relative left frontal activation in women. An unexpected finding was that high-defensive men showed relative right frontal activation, a result virtually opposite that for women. These results imply that the nature of defensiveness as a coping strategy may vary as a function of gender.     

Commands activate the behavior and pleasure of 2-year-old children.

In 3 studies we investigated the responses of 18- and 24-month-old children to a series of commands to perform such tasks as putting rings on a pyramid and feeding a doll. The commands were given by an experimenter in a positive and responsive manner. The children at both ages not only performed a large number of the tasks but did so with alacrity and enthusiasm. In contrast, their free play with the test items prior to commands was desultory and their affect, flat. Then, in subsequent trials, without commands or praise, they repeated a major part of the tasks with comparable enthusiasm. It is therefore proposed that a potent incentive for obeying commands lies in the pleasure very young children take in fitting their actions to the words of others, a pleasure that sustains subsequent reenactment of the actions without commands. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)