Friction response of ZDDP thermal film and tribofilm

Abstract

An original dynamic tribotest was used to study the friction response of two kinds of tribological surface: zinc-dialkyl-dithio-phosphate (ZDDP) thermal film and ZDDP tribofilm. This apparatus allows friction to be determined with no need for measuring tangential force. A velocity dependent friction contribution was found in each case in addition to a velocity independent one, showing the viscous character of such films. Furthermore, during test on ZDDP thermal film, the viscous damping represents 18% of the total dissipated energy as it is 16% for ZDDP tribofilm.     

滚动轴承打滑蹭伤微观分析

为进一步认识滚动轴承打滑蹭伤机制,借助X射线光电子能谱仪(XPS)、俄歇电子能谱仪(AES)、能谱分析仪(EDX)和X射线衍射分析仪(XRD)等手段,对打滑蹭伤轴承内圈滚道蹭伤带表面进行微观分析。结果表明:打滑蹭伤轴承内圈滚道蹭伤带表面磨损严重,粗糙度较大且发生氧化磨损形成了FeO,这可能是由于滚动轴承打滑蹭伤瞬间滚子与内圈滚道间润滑油膜遭到破坏,使两者发生了干摩擦;蹭伤带表面组织发生马氏体向奥氏体转变,且蹭伤带表面C元素含量较高,这可能是由于蹭伤瞬间形成的较高闪温达到奥氏体化温度,使得轴承内圈滚道表面发生奥氏体相变,随后润滑油迅速冷却作用使得奥氏体来不及完全转变成马氏体;由于残余奥氏体具有比马氏体更强的溶碳性,因而蹭伤带表面C元素含量较高。     

A review of hysteresis theories for elastomers

The authors present an exhaustive and critical appraisal of current theories of hysteretic friction in this second review article on the friction of elastomeric materials. A physical interpretation of the hysteresis component of friction is given for single and multiple asperities, and its viscoelastic nature is demonstrated. Most of the paper is devoted to a detailed comparison of “elastic” and viscoelastic theories, with an overall appraisal of each contribution where appropriate. It is emphasized that the fundamental element in both the adhesional and hysteretic mechanisms is energy loss associated with relative motion at a sliding interface.     

Numerical analysis of viscous elastohydrodynamic point contact under stationary conditions

A model is proposed for study of the effect of nonelastic qualities of contacting bodies separated by a fine lubricant film on the contact characteristics. The problem is studied of the movement of the fine lubricant film between the rigid spherical surface and the mobile viscoelastic-layer surface rigidly adhering to the base. A unidimensional Kelvin model of the viscoelastic medium serves as the rheological model of the viscoelastic layer. The calculation results show that the pressure is distributed in the viscous elastohydrodynamic point contact film very much differently from the pressure distribution in the UHD contact, particularly at slow sliding velocities. The friction coefficient is a nonmonotonous function of the sliding velocity. The friction coefficient drops at slow velocities to a minimum as the velocity accelerates, and then it grows.     

渐开线直齿轮的摩擦激励及振动阻尼分析

齿轮传动中的润滑油膜一般为非线性粘滞体（Ｒｅｅ－Ｅｙｉｎｇ体）。运用部分膜承载热弹流理论计算齿轮传动中的滑动摩擦力和滚动摩擦力。齿轮的振动阻尼力是齿面滑动摩擦力中的一部分,是齿轮振动角位移的非线性函数。为了便于工程应用,使用线性阻尼系数。它是齿轮几何尺寸和压力油膜的粘度及膜厚的函数。     

超高压斜盘式轴向柱塞泵柱塞副摩擦界面油膜固液耦合作用特性研究

作为液压传动系统核心动力元件的轴向柱塞泵,超高压化是其必然发展趋势与要求,然而超高压化会造成其中关键的柱塞副摩擦界面油膜形成显著的固液耦合作用,对柱塞副油膜的摩擦润滑与密封承载性能产生规律尚不明确的影响。为此,建立一种基于变形矩阵法的固液耦合作用求解方法,该方法基于有限容积法解算油膜流体润滑方程,基于有限元法实现摩擦界面变形计算节点规则化设置及变形矩阵精准计算,在此基础上建立柱塞副油膜弹性流体动压润滑数值计算模型,针对采用软硬配对的柱塞副63 MPa超高压工况下的摩擦界面油膜固液耦合作用特性进行研究,结果表明：固液耦合作用有助于减小柱塞副处轴向黏性摩擦力和泄漏流量,一个周期内柱塞副总周向黏性摩擦力大小基本不变但分布更为集中,导致产生了更大峰值的瞬时摩擦力;显著的结构变形产生于柱塞副摩擦界面两端局部位置处,因而对泄漏流量不造成影响,在超高压工况下经过软硬配对跑合,固液耦合作用有助于原本标准柱形铜套孔形成类似“喇叭口”的一种微观形貌,增大了柱塞与铜套孔的接触面积,增强了密封超高压油的能力,降低了接触应力。建立的模型及研究结果可为轴向柱塞泵超高压化设计提供指导。     

The effects of surface roughness on nanotribology of confined two-dimensional films

A molecular dynamics simulation is used to investigate the effect of surface roughness on the nano-rheology of ultra-thin films confined between two solid walls. The results show that friction is sensitive to the confining surface morphology and the fluid molecules near the two confining surfaces are in a layering solid-like structure. At a high shear rate, the interfacial layers of the film stick to the walls, resulting in partial slip inside the film and the development of shear stress in the viscous molecular fluid. The frictional resisting force is due to the shear in the viscous molecular fluid but not dependent on the critical yield stress of the solid-like structure as in the case of smooth boundaries.     

Computer simulation of starvation in thrust-loaded ball-bearings

Starvation of lubricant supply is an important effect in high speed ball-bearing operation but it is poorly understood as it is difficult to examine experimentally. The work here uses a modified version of an existing advanced computational method of predicting ball motion in thrust-loaded bearings to study some effects of starvation. The influence of reduced lubricant supply on cage drag, pocket friction, elastohydrodynamic (EHD) film thickness and EHD traction is illustrated. In particular it is shown that partial starvation may be beneficial since the reduced drag forces allow the bearing to run at lower loads without experiencing the gross skidding which can cause sliding wear.     

液黏传动摩擦副流固耦合传热分析

为探求液黏传动在充满工作油的流体阶段摩擦副温度分布情况,建立薄盘结构摩擦副热流固耦合模型,采用计算机流体仿真软件FLUENT对径向槽摩擦副进行数值模拟,得到摩擦副的温度云图。通过搭建液黏传动装置试验台,测得径向油槽摩擦副间油膜温度分布数据。结果表明:在径向方向上,随半径的增加,摩擦副温度逐渐增加且沟槽处温度低于无沟槽处;在圆周方向上,相同半径处摩擦副的沟槽区比无沟槽区温度高,表明沟槽可以有效地降低工作油的升温;在纯油膜阶段摩擦片升温明显高于对偶片升温。有限元分析和实验研究结果趋势基本一致,验证了理论分析的可靠性。     

非道路两缸柴油机轴承热弹性流体动力润滑特性研究

基于热弹性流体动力润滑理论和多体动力学理论,针对自主研发的非道路2D25卧式两缸柴油机,采用AVL Excite Power Unit软件建立曲轴轴承的多体动力学模型,探讨柔性整机体模型下轴瓦与轴承座的弹性变形、润滑油的黏温及黏压特性、轴瓦及轴颈的表面粗糙度及热效应等因素,建立轴承的润滑模型并计算不同工况下各轴承的载荷、油膜厚度、油膜压力和摩擦功耗。研究结果表明:随着转速的升高,主轴承的总摩擦功耗增加,轴瓦的热负荷增大;高转速下,第一主轴承(MB1)和第三主轴承(MB3)存在轴颈倾斜不对中,出现偏磨现象,导致第二缸爆发时主轴颈振动加剧;连杆轴承油膜压力分布均匀性较好,轴瓦热负荷低,在高转速下润滑效果更佳。     

An elastic-plastic asperity interaction model for sliding friction

A finite-element model of the interaction of an elastic-plastic asperity junction based on cylindrical or spherical asperities is used to predict sliding friction coefficients. The modelling differs from previous work by permitting greater asperity overlaps, enforcing an interface adhesional shear strength, and allowing material failure. The results of the modelling were also used to predict friction coefficients for a stochastic rough surface. The asperities were based on the titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V, and the magnitudes of the predicted friction coefficients were generally representative of experimental measurements of sliding friction. The results suggest that friction arises from both plasticity and tangential interface adhesion.     

An elastic–plastic asperity interaction model for sliding friction

A finite-element model of the interaction of an elastic–plastic asperity junction based on cylindrical or spherical asperities is used to predict sliding friction coefficients. The modelling differs from previous work by permitting greater asperity overlaps, enforcing an interface adhesional shear strength, and allowing material failure. The results of the modelling were also used to predict friction coefficients for a stochastic rough surface. The asperities were based on the titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V, and the magnitudes of the predicted friction coefficients were generally representative of experimental measurements of sliding friction. The results suggest that friction arises from both plasticity and tangential interface adhesion.     

Friction reduction in rolling bearing by using polymer additives

The friction torque on the outer ring of a tapered roller bearing has been experimentally measured for a mineral oil (base oil), as well as for samples of the base oil additived with low‐density polyethylene. The data show an important reduction of friction by introducing the polymer into the base oil due to the film formed by the adsorption of macromolecular coils on the solid surface. The effectiveness of macromolecular additive contribution to friction behaviour is described in terms of polymer efficiency, which shows maximum values at low polymer concentrations. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Velocity-Dependent Adhesion with Lubricants on Thin-Film Disks

The well-known problem of stiction in a magnetic disk drive largely depends on the forces induced by the presence of a thin liquid film. It is commonly recognized that both adhesive and viscous effects contribute to the magnitude of the stiction force, but is is not known what relative roles the two effects have in a lubricated contact. In the present work, the nature of adhesive and viscous effects is investigated for the slider/disk interface under conditions of constant-speed sliding.

Friction measurements are conducted over a range of sliding speeds, 0.25-250 mm/s, with eight perfluoropolyether (PFPE) lubricants applied in various thicknesses, 0-6.6 nm, to carbon-coated magnetic thin-film disks. The lubricants were selected to cover a broad range of viscosities. For several sliding speeds and lubricant film thicknesses, the friction force is found to decrease significantly with increasing sliding speed for all lubricants. In several instances, large friction forces are observed at the lowest sliding speeds, indicating stiction-like behavior, whereas, at higher speeds, the friction is reduced to even below unlubricated friction levels. At the highest film thickness and sliding speed, the friction was found to increase with speed for some lubricants. The implications of these results on current models of lubricant-mediated adhesion are discussed.     

Lubrication of forging under thick film conditions with thermal effects

In cold upsetting with a liquid lubricant, a film is trapped at the beginning of the process. Then, as plastic deformation proceeds, a non-lubricated external zone appears, while the film thins out in the central part.^1,2 This behaviour is influenced by thermal effects, namely, self-heating of the viscous fluid⁴ and heating of the workpiece surface by plastic deformation.³ To improve local computation of friction, these thermal effects are here accounted for; a semi-analytical Reynolds equation is proposed; and its solution by a finite difference scheme gives the film thickness everywhere in the film, and the extent of the non-lubricated zone. Inclusion of the rheology of the fluid can then permit computation of the local friction stress, which can be coupled as a boundary condition in a model of workpiece plastic deformation.     

表面粗糙度对高速滚子轴承保持架运动性能的影响

在高速和轻载工况条件下，打滑擦伤往往成为圆柱滚子轴承的主要失效形式，而表面粗糙度对轴承打滑损伤有很大的影响。本文采用部分弹性流体动力润滑理论，分析了在表面粗糙度影响下，轴承润滑膜厚比以及轴承表面加工纹理与轴承保持架滑差率的关系，从而揭示表面粗糙度效应对高速滚子轴承运动性能的影响     

An analytical model to investigate skidding in rolling element bearings during acceleration

Skidding, which occurs in rolling element bearings during shaft rotational acceleration, causes wear and incipient failure. This paper presents an analytical model to investigate skidding during rolling element bearing acceleration, taking account of the contact force and friction force between the rolling elements and the races and the cage, gravity, and the centrifugal force of the rolling elements. The Hertzian contact theory is applied to calculate the non-linear contact force. The Coulomb friction law is used to calculate the friction force. All forces above are included in force equilibrium equations to derive the non-linear governing equations of the bearing during acceleration, and are solved using a fourth-order Runge-Kutta algorithm with fixed time step. The proposed model is verified by comparison to other published results and with experimental results. The proposed model can be used to investigate skidding in rolling element bearings during acceleration and the transient motion behavior of rolling elements, and it will lay the theoretical foundations for eliminating skidding in rolling element bearings.     

Reduction of Friction by Functionalised Viscosity Index Improvers

A range of functionalised polymethacrylate copolymers have been synthesised with different functionalities, polymer architecture and molecular weight. It is shown that appropriately functionalised block copolymers give enhanced film thickness and greatly reduced friction under low entrainment speed conditions, even with polymer concentration as low as 1% wt. This behaviour almost certainly results from the formation of an adsorbed brush-like film of thickness ca 20 nm on each polar surface. These films provide a highly viscous inlet that promotes fluid entrainment and thus maintains a separating film down to very low entrainment speed. The adsorbed polymer films are also able to maintain separation in stationary contact conditions. Randomly distributed copolymers do not show this type of behaviour. The friction reduction observed is more effective in unidirectional, mixed sliding–rolling than in reciprocating, sliding conditions. However, it is found that functionalised polymers and conventional organic and molybdenum-based friction modifiers can be combined to provide effective friction reduction over the whole range of rubbing conditions.     

直齿轮传动非牛顿流体瞬态弹流润滑研究

综合考虑润滑流体的非牛顿特性以及齿轮传动的瞬态效应，采用Bair-Winer粘塑模型推导了非牛顿流体雷诺方程，建立了非牛顿流体瞬态弹流润滑模型；进行直齿轮传动非牛顿流体弹流润滑数值分析，获得了齿轮传动沿啮合线的油膜压力、油膜形状以及摩擦因数的分布。结果表明：在非牛顿流体工况下，油膜厚度、油膜压力以及轮齿表面摩擦因数均有所降低,因此在齿轮弹流润滑研究中应考虑流体的非牛顿特性的影响。     

Grease lubrication of rolling element bearings — role of the grease thickener

The contribution of grease thickener to lubricant film formation was examined in this paper. Lubricant film thickness and friction were measured for different grease thickener types in a bearing simulation device. The results showed that the greases formed thick (20–80nm), low friction surface layers at low speeds, which were much greater than the corresponding base oil film. These films appeared to be formed by the physical deposition of thickener in the track during overrolling of the grease. This was confirmed by infrared reflection analysis, which showed the deposited films to have increased thickener content. The ability of grease to form renewable physically deposited solid films has significant implications for optimising lubricant formulation for certain applications, e.g. bearings operating at high temperatures and low speeds where a conventional elastohydrodynamic lubricating film would be inadequate. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.