Stereotypic and nonstereotypic sex role trait and behavior orientations: Implications for personal adjustment.

We tested three competing hypotheses: traditional assumptions that sex-typed traits and behaviors are necessary for optimal adjustment (sex role congruence model); the contemporary androgyny hypothesis, which posits that transcendence of narrow sex typing permits enhanced psychological functioning; and the empirically based masculinity model, which states that psychological health in both men and women is primarily a function of masculine, instrumental traits. Measures of sex role traits, attitudes, and behaviors and scales assessing self-esteem and adjustment were administered to 411 college men and women. Sex role attitudes did not covary with individual differences in adjustment, but sex role traits and behaviors did. Masculine traits and behaviors had broadly positive implications for self-esteem and adjustment for women as well as for men. Feminine qualities did not relate to the adjustment indices as strongly or consistently as masculine ones did, but they did contribute positively to most indices and played a central role in communal self-esteem components. Overall, no support was found for the traditional congruence model, but both the androgyny and masculinity models were supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The male role, alcohol use, and alcohol problems: A structural modeling examination in adult women and men.

Most research on sex differences in alcohol involvement suggests that drinking is a component of the male gender role, but the impact of specific male role factors on alcohol involvement has not yet been studied. The authors used structural modeling to examine the relationships among 3 male role variables (agency, traditional male role attitudes, and masculine gender role stress), alcohol consumption, and alcohol-related problems in a sample of women and men. To determine whether sex moderates this relationship, models were computed separately for men and women. For men, traditional attitudes led to more alcohol consumption, whereas agentic traits protected them from experiencing alcohol-related problems, and experiencing masculine gender role stress was a risk factor for these problems. Male role variables were unrelated to women's alcohol consumption, but women who believed more in the traditional role of men suffered from more alcohol-related problems. Discussion centers on the contribution of components of the male role on alcohol outcomes as well as the different implications for men and women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis.

This article presents a synthesis of research on the relative effectiveness of women and men who occupy leadership and managerial roles. Aggregated over the organizational and laboratory experimental studies in the sample, male and female leaders were equally effective. However, consistent with the assumption that the congruence of leadership roles with leaders' gender enhances effectiveness, men were more effective than women in roles that were defined in more masculine terms, and women were more effective than men in roles that were defined in less masculine terms. Also, men were more effective than women to the extent that leader and subordinate roles were male-dominated numerically. These and other findings are discussed from the perspective of social-role theory of sex differences in social behavior as well as from alternative perspectives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of parenthood on various aspects of masculinity and femininity: A short-term longitudinal study.

Assessed 3 aspects of sex typing for 30 primiparous couples from the 3rd trimester of the wives' pregnancies to 6 mo postpartum. Based on laboratory observations and self-rating scales (including the Bem Satisfaction Scale and Bem Sex-Role Inventory), measures of femininity and masculinity were obtained for role behaviors, self-rated personality traits, and identity. Despite stability of rank order for all measures, there were changes in the magnitude of sex typing from expectancy to parenthood. Men and women increased in feminine role behavior, feminine identity, and instrumental personality traits, and women decreased in masculine role behavior. The masculine and feminine domains each displayed a modest degree of cohesiveness across the different measures, but the patterns of association were stage-of-life specific and sex specific. Most striking was the dissociation of the feminine role behavior measure from other sex-typing components for mothers of infants. The relationship between masculinity and femininity were measure specific. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Male gender role conflict, depression, and anxiety: Clarification and generalizability to women.

The purpose of this study was (a) to determine whether the relationship between male gender role conflict variables and mental health generalizes to women and (b) to investigate other aspects of social gender roles and mental health. An adaptation of the Gender Role Conflict Scale (I. M. O'Neil, B. J. Helms, R. K. Gable. L. David, & L. S. Wrightsman, 1986) and measures of depression and anxiety were administered to male and female college students. Men showed more restricted emotionality. more restricted affection, greater appropriate and inappropriate success, and more restricted affection, particularly for other men; there were no gender differences related to the conflict between work and family. However, for the most part these variables were related to depression and anxiety in similar ways in men and women. The major predictor of depression and anxiety for men and women was conflict between work and family. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of gender, sex role identity, and Type A behavior in anger expression and mental health functioning.

This study, including 407 female and 222 male college students, investigated the relationship of gender, sex role identity, and Type A behavior to multiple dimensions of anger expression and mental health functioning. Significant multivariate effects were found for sex role and behavior pattern type for anger expression. Significant gender differences were not observed. Univariate analyses revealed consistent relationships between sex role identity and anger proneness, suppression, and control and the tendency to express anger outwardly. Consistent relationships were found between behavior pattern type and both anger proneness and suppression. Significant multivariate effects were found for gender, sex role, and behavior pattern type for mental health functioning. Gender differences were not observed in depression. Women obtained higher scores on indirect hostility, irritability, and dependency, and men obtained higher scores on assault and aggressiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Refining measurement in the study of social anxiety and student drinking: Who you are and why you drink determines your outcomes.

This study investigated inconsistencies in the literature regarding social anxiety and problematic drinking among college students. One hundred eighteen students (61% women) who experience anxiety in social or performance situations completed measures of social anxiety and a modified Timeline Followback that assessed the psychological context of drinking episodes and alcohol-related consequences. Results suggest that men who experience severe social anxiety drink less alcohol than men with lower levels of anxiety, whereas women high in social anxiety are likely to experience more alcohol-related consequences per drinking episode than women low in social anxiety, despite drinking similar amounts of alcohol. In addition, women with high social anxiety were found to experience more alcohol-related consequences than men with high social anxiety. These findings suggest that the inconsistencies noted in the literature on drinking to cope with social anxiety and alcohol-related consequences may reflect methodological differences and the failure to consider gender. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stress, coping, and perceptions of child behavior in parents of preschoolers with cerebral palsy.

This study explored the relationships among stress, coping, and perceptions of child behavior in parents of preschoolers with cerebral palsy. Parents (62 mothers and 22 fathers) completed measures of parenting stress, depression, parenting satisfaction, social support, and child behavior problems. For mothers, only parenting self-efficacy was a significant predictor of maternal perceptions of child adjustment. High levels of maternal social support satisfaction were related to low levels of depression and parenting stress and to high levels of parenting satisfaction. High levels of depression were related to high levels of parenting stress and low levels of parenting satisfaction. For fathers, high levels of distress were related to low levels of parenting satisfaction and high levels of child maladjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings.

Secondary analyses of Revised NEO Personality inventory data from 26 cultures (N =23,031) suggest that gender differences are small relative to individual variation within genders; differences are replicated across cultures for both college-age and adult samples, and differences are broadly consistent with gender stereotypes: Women reported themselves to be higher in Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth, and Openness to Feelings, whereas men were higher in Assertiveness and Openness to Ideas. Contrary to predictions from evolutionary theory, the magnitude of gender differences varied across cultures. Contrary to predictions from the social role model, gender differences were most pronounced in European and American cultures in which traditional sex roles are minimized. Possible explanations for this surprising finding are discussed, including the attribution of masculine and feminine behaviors to roles rather than traits in traditional cultures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Overcoming the masculine mystique: Preferences for alternative forms of assistance among men who avoid counseling.

Both informal observation and considerable data confirm that men are less likely to seek psychotherapy than are women. This study examines the possibility that this reluctance to seek help (1) is related to traditional gender role socialization and (2) can be lessened by offering counseling interventions that are more congruent with that socialization. 435 male Ss were recruited from 23 intact classes of 1 university and 2 community college campuses. Predictors of positive attitudes toward traditional counseling included comparatively high social scores on a personality measure. Predictors of negative attitudes toward personal counseling included high scores on various masculinity measures. The study also indicated that men with more highly masculine attitudes preferred alternative helping formats over traditional ones. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Butch, femme, or straight acting? Partner preferences of gay men and lesbians.

On average, gay men are somewhat feminine and lesbians somewhat masculine, but there is variation within each group. The authors examined the consequences of this variation for gay men's and lesbians' desirability as romantic partners. In 2 studies the authors analyzed personal advertisements. Homosexual people were more likely than heterosexual people to mention traits related to sex typicality and more likely to request sex-typical than sex-atypical partners. In 2 studies the authors assessed partner preferences directly. On average, gay men preferred men who described themselves as masculine rather than feminine, but this preference was weaker among men who rated themselves as relatively feminine. Lesbians preferred women who described themselves as feminine looking but did not discriminate against women calling themselves masculine acting. The authors discuss implications of the results for theories of sexual orientation and the adjustment of sex-atypical homosexual people. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between depression and marital maladjustment in a clinic population: A multitrait-multimethod study.

Took depression and marital maladjustment measures of all 154 couples attending a clinic. Average age for men was 38 yrs, for women 35 yrs; average length of marriage was 19 yrs. A significant correlation between depression and marital maladjustment was found for self-report data and was replicated by therapists' ratings. Women were significantly more depressed than men though similar in average ratings of marital adjustment. Women's depression ratings were minimally related to their own their husbands' marital ratings. Men's depression ratings were related to both their own and their wives' marital ratings. Convergent validity was demonstrated for the Locke and Wallace Marital-Adjustment Test and the Beck Depression Inventory. Clinical implications of findings concerning both depression and marital maladjustment are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender-related traits, stereotypes, and schemata.

We conducted two experiments, patterned after a study reported by S. L. Bem (1981), to test the implications of Bem's unifactorial gender schema theory, H. Markus's (Markus, Crane, Bernstein, & Siladi, 1982) two-factor theory, and J. . Spence's (1985) multifactorial theory of gender identity. Subjects were presented with and asked to recall a list of words varying in both gender (masculine, feminine, neutral) and semantic category. Contrary to the Bem and Markus theories but congruent with gender identity theory, scores on the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ; Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1975), a measure of gender differentiating traits, were unrelated to number of gender-associated words recalled or to amount of gender clustering. Similarly negative results for the PAQ were found in a third experiment using a release-from-proactive-interference design patterned after C. J. Mills and D. J. Tyrell (1983). However, as anticipated by the gender identity theory, several significant relations were found with measures of sex role attitudes and behaviors and occupational stereotypes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychosexual development of women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) (N = 31) and their unaffected sisters or female cousins (N = 15) participated in a study of psychosexual development. All participants were > or = 18 years of age (mean age, 25 years; range, 18-40). Comparisons were also made between the CAH women with the salt-wasting (SW) form of the disorder and those with simple virilization (SV). A psychosexual assessment protocol examined six variables: (1) sex assignment at birth (probands only); (2) recalled sex-typed behavior during childhood; (3) gender identity and gender role identification in adulthood; (4) relationship status; (5) sexual orientation in fantasy; and (6) sexual orientation in behavior. Salt-wasting status and sex assignment at birth were also ascertained for the CAH women who either refused to participate in the study (N = 10) or could not be traced (N = 13). Compared to the controls, the women with CAH recalled more cross-gender role behavior and less comfort with their sense of "femininity" during childhood. The two groups did not differ in degree of gender dysphoria in adulthood, although the probands showed more cross-gender role identification. Three of the nonparticipant probands were living, as adults, in the male social role (2 reared from birth as boys and 1 who changed from the female to the male social role during adolescence). The CAH women and the controls did not differ in relationship status (married/cohabiting vs. single). The CAH women had lower rates of exclusive heterosexual fantasy and fewer sexual experiences with men than the controls; however, the CAH women did not have more sexual experiences with women than the controls. Comparisons between the SW and SV revealed several differences: the SW were less likely to be assigned to the female sex at birth, recalled more cross-gender role behavior during childhood, were less likely to be married or cohabiting, and had lower rates of sexual experiences with men. The results were discussed in relation to the effects of prenatal androgens on psychosexual differentiation.     

Sex role identity and its relationships to sex role attributes and sex role stereotypes.

Examines J. Kagan's (1964) and L. A. Kohlberg's (1966) theories of sex role identity. Both premise relationships among an individual's sex role identity, perception of sex role stereotypes, and own masculine and feminine sex role attributes, but the theories specify different patterns of correlations among these variables. Kagan's theory views sex role identity as the product of the mutual influence of stereotypes and attributes, whereas Kohlberg's posits sex role attributes as the product of the stereotypes and identity. 104 male and 110 female college students were administered measures of each variable including the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ), modified versions of PAQ to measure stereotypes of men and women, and a measure of sex role identity developed by the present author. Results indicate an overall relationship between sex role identity and the other 2 variables. Results generally support Kohlberg's theory over Kagan's. Significant correlations were found where Kohlberg's theory would predict a relationship—between sex role stereotypes and sex role attributes. Nonsignificant correlations were found where Kagan's theory would predict a relationship—between sex role stereotypes and sex role identity. Results are compared to findings by J. T. Spence et al (1975), and questions are raised about the psychological constructs underlying measures of sex role attributes. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and aggressive behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature.

Reviewed sex differences in aggressive behavior, using 63 studies (appended) reported in the social psychological literature, and found that although men were somewhat more aggressive than women on the average, sex differences were inconsistent across studies. The magnitude of the sex differences was significantly related to various attributes of the studies. In particular, the tendency for men to aggress more than women was more pronounced for aggression that produced pain or physical injury than for aggression that produced psychological or social harm. In addition, sex differences in aggressive behavior were larger to the extent that women, more than men, perceived that enacting a behavior would produce harm to the target, guilt and anxiety in oneself, as well as danger to oneself. It is suggested that aggression sex differences are a function of perceived consequences of aggression that are learned as aspects of gender roles and other social roles. (96 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of sex, gender roles, and attraction in predicting emergent leaders.

Examined the influence of sex, gender role characteristics, and interpersonal attractiveness on the selection of emergent leaders. Data were collected on 2 occasions from 122 subjects in 28 task groups performing "sex neutral" tasks for valued rewards over many weeks of interaction. Results showed no significant difference in the proportion of men and women to emerge as leaders through intragroup sociometric choice. Regardless of sex, group members with masculine gender role characteristics emerged as leaders significantly more than those with feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated gender role characteristics. Emergent leaders received significantly higher interpersonal attractiveness ratings than nonleaders within groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between sex role attitudes and personality traits and the sex role behavior scale-1: A new measure of masculine and feminine role behaviors and interests.

Describes the construction of a preliminary Sex Role Behavior Scale (SRBS-1), a 160 item self-report inventory comprising male-valued, female-valued, and sex-specific interest/behavior scales. The relationship of the SRBS-1 to measures of sex role attitudes and personality traits is also examined. An initial pool of 239 items describing recreational activities, vocational interests, social and dating behaviors, and marital behaviors thought to be more typical of one sex than the other was administered to 528 college men and women. One-third of the Ss compared the typical young adult man and woman on the items, one-third rated the desirability of the items for men and women, and the remaining third rated themselves. Typical and desirability ratings were used to select items that were male valued (more typical of one sex and desirable only for that sex). The findings suggest that male- and female-valued behaviors form a dualism and are actually positively correlated. Additional analyses showed that individuals with nontraditional sex role attitudes or personality trait organization were somewhat less conventionally sex typed in their behaviors and interests. However, these relationships tended to be small, suggesting a general independence of sex role traits, attitudes, and behaviors. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A different perspective on androgyny: Evaluations of masculine and feminine personality characteristics.

Hypothesized that androgynous Ss would be liked best and perceived as most adjusted (Exp I) and also be perceived to be as instrumental as masculine Ss and as expressive as feminine Ss (Exp II). 179 undergraduates served as Ss in Exp I and 160 undergraduates served in Exp II. Personal Attributes Questionnaires ostensibly filled out by others were the stimuli evaluated. These stimuli were constructed so that the stimulus persons (SPs) were classified as either androgynous, undifferentiated, masculine, or feminine. Male and female Ss evaluated the SPs on dimensions of likeability, adjustment, expressiveness, instrumentality, masculinity, and femininity. Results demonstrate that androgynous persons, regardless of gender, were liked best and perceived as most adjusted, whereas undifferentiated persons were liked least and perceived as least adjusted. Masculine and feminine persons, regardless of gender, were rated midway between androgynous and undifferentiated persons and generally were not evaluated differently on these dimensions. Evaluations of SPs on stereotypically gender-related dimensions revealed that androgynous persons were seen to be as highly instrumental as masculine persons and as highly expressive as feminine persons, but generally less masculine and feminine than sex-typed persons. Implications for self-fulfilling prophecies in social behavior are discussed. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)