Response to thermal cycling of tool materials under steel thixoforming conditions

Abstract

The principal failure mechanism of steel thixoforming dies is thermal fatigue owing to forging pressures much lower than those encountered in conventional forging. This makes a properly designed thermal fatigue test the best method to identify suitable tooling materials for the steel thixoforming environment. Samples of X32CrMoV33 hot work tool steel and CrNiCo alloy were cycled thermally between 450 and 750°C, every 60 s for a total of 1500 cycles. While the thermal stresses generated at the surfaces of the two materials were very similar, their responses to thermal cycling were markedly different. The X32CrMoV33 steel was softened by nearly 40% after only 400 cycles, raising serious concerns over its temper resistance under steel thixoforming conditions. The extensive oxidation and subsequent spalling of oxide scales suffered by the X32CrMoV33 hot work tool steel is also a major shortcoming. The performance of the CrNiCo alloy, on the other hand, was judged to be satisfactory with a much thinner heat affected zone and a much better oxidation resistance. Lack of evidence for heat checking in this alloy after 1500 cycles is an encouraging sign.     

Thermal Fatigue Testing of Plasma Transfer Arc Stellite Coatings on Hot Work Tool Steels under Steel Thixoforming Conditions

The thermal fatigue performance of Stellite 12 coating deposited on X32CrMoV33 hot work tool steel via the plasma transfer arc (PTA) process was investigated under steel thixoforming conditions. Stellite 12 coating has made a favorable impact on the thermal fatigue performance of the X32CrMoV33 hot work tool steel. The latter survived steel thixoforming conditions lasting much longer, for a total of 5000 cycles, when coated with a PTA Stellite 12 layer. This marked improvement is attributed to the higher resistance to oxidation and to temper softening of the Stellite 12 alloy. The Cr-rich oxides, which form during thermal cycling, provide adequate protection to high-temperature oxidation. In contrast to hot work tool steel, Stellite 12 alloy enjoys hardening upon thermal exposure under steel thixoforming conditions. This increase in the strength of the coating is produced by the formation of carbides and contributes to the superior thermal fatigue resistance of the Stellite 12 alloy. When the crack finally initiates, it propagates via the fracture of hard interdendritic carbides. The transformation of M₇C₃ to M₂₃C₆, which is more voluminous than M₇C₃, promotes crack propagation.     

Effect of Single and Duplex Thin Hard Film Coatings on the Wear Resistance of 1.2343 Tool Steel

In aluminum extrusion process, tool steels used as die materials suffer from mechanical, thermal and tribological stresses causing plastic deformation, wear and heat checking during hot metal flow. Thin hard film coatings like TiN, (Ti,Al)N and CrN are preferred in order to improve the surface properties of the tools. These coatings can reduce the friction force, minimize the adhesive interaction between the die and billet pairs and decrease the plastic deformation of the tool. In this study, effect of single (CrN and AlTiN) and duplex (CrN + AlTiN) thin hard films on the hot wear behavior of DIN 1.2343 tool steel was investigated. Wear tests were performed both at room temperature and elevated temperature to simulate the conditions of aluminum extrusion process. Based on the evaluation of coefficient of friction values, specific wear rates and worn surface examinations, the duplex coating, which had the best performance in the RT wear test showed good resistance to high temperature wear under the simulated aluminum extrusion conditions.     

Effect of carbon content in CrMoV hot working tool steel

The aim of this work was to find out whether a reduction of carbon content would reduce the amount of segregated eutectic carbides and improve ductility and toughness. Quenched and temperted specimens of steel X 40 CrMoV 5 1 (～AISI H 13) were tested at carbon contents of 0.42 and 0.27%. Tensile and short time creep tests were carried out at elevated temperatures. Toughness was derived from unnotched, notched and precracked specimens over a temperature range. Stable fatigue crack growth was measured in CT specimens at room temperature and in thermal fatigue specimens. As expected, ductility and toughness are raised by reducing the carbon content. At the same time a favourable improvement of hot strength and creep resistance appears, causing a lower thermal fatigue crack velocity. These beneficial effects are due to the higher alloy content in solution after hardening. It is proposed to test a steel X 28 CrMoV 5 1 for intricate tools in practical application and learn more about its wear behaviour.     

The Effect of H13 Oxide Particles Supplied at the Interface Copper Alloy/Cast Iron Before Sliding on Tribological Behaviour and Friction Mechanisms

In high temperature hot forming processes (forging), the tool surfaces are the privileged places for mechanical, thermal and physico-chemical solicitations. More precisely, friction and wear play an important part in tool surface damage. The tool steel grades exhibit damages such as oxidation. Moreover oxide scales formed had a significant effect in failure forging tools on wear mechanisms and have to be considered in the wear model development. The damage caused by oxidation is very different according to the nature and the physical properties of formed oxide layers in the contact surfaces. The objective of the present work is to give an outline of the effects of the nature and the morphology of supplied X40CrMoV5-1 steel (AISI H13) oxides particles before slow sliding onto rubbing brass–steel surfaces on friction transition and wear mechanisms. It is the first to show the effects of thin flats plates having different micrometric size supplied before friction. In order to improve and to have a better insight into the wear phenomena taking place during the first instants of sliding, this work conducted has also demonstrated the role of this third body introduced before friction on the development and establishment of tribological circuit on the rubbing surface. In this paper, the wear investigations are carried out using a pad-on-disc tribometer. The pad-on-disc sliding wear experiments were performed at a load of 500 N and a sliding velocity of 0.065 mm/s in normal atmosphere. The pad is made of brass and the disc is made of cast iron lamellar. Static oxidation test used to evaluate samples oxidation characteristics consisted of one cycle of 70 h at 600 °C. In brief examination of rubbed pad surfaces after friction was conducted using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to identify the wear mechanisms under oxidation surface. In addition, the samples structure and properties were examined by optical microscopy and SEM, profilometrical measurements and X-ray diffraction. Tribological results, correlated with microscopic observations, are conducted to establish a phenomenological model of wear mechanisms describing the evolution of the third body in contact. The effect of planning flats plates of third body on friction evolution was also discussed.     

Development and Application of a Stainless CrNbMoC Tool Steel

Steels with 15 mass% Cr, 2 mass% Mo and varying contents of C, V, Nb and Ti were investigated by thermodynamic calculations to find a stainless grade promising a wear resistance equal to that of the standard cold work tool steel X153CrMoV12. It was shown that Nb is most suited to form MC carbides for wear resistance thus reducing the content of M₇C₃, which in turn raised the Cr content dissolved in the matrix to a passivating level. Small melts in the vicinity of steel X140CrNbMoTi15‐5‐2 confirmed this concept in respect to hardenability, wear resistance and corrosion resistance. Industrial manufacturing and application of the new grade RN15X® will be discussed.     

Ni-based superalloy as a potential tool material for thixoforming of steels

Abstract

Semisolid processing, already a well established manufacturing route for the production of intricate, thin walled aluminium and magnesium parts with mechanical properties as good as forged grades, faces a major challenge in the case of steels. The tool materials must withstand complex load profiles and relatively higher forming temperatures for thousands of forming cycles for this near-net shape process to be attractive for steels on an industrial scale. The potential of a Ni-based superalloy, Inconel 617, reported to exhibit superior thermal fatigue resistance in demanding tooling applications, was investigated. The response to thermal cycling of this alloy at high temperatures was compared with that of X38CrMoV5 hot work tool steel widely used in the manufacture of conventional forging dies. The favourable thermophysical properties of the latter were completely negated by its limited temper resistance, while the Inconel 617 alloy responded to thermal cycling by the usual heat cracking mechanism.     

两种热作模具钢的高温摩擦磨损性能

采用高温摩擦磨损试验机研究了HTCS-130和DAC55两种热作模具钢在100~700℃范围内的耐磨性差异及磨损机制, 并结合X射线衍射仪(XRD)、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、光学轮廓仪等手段对表面相组成、磨损表面、截面形貌等进行分析. 结果表明: 两种钢的磨损率均在100~700℃范围内呈现先增后减的趋势; 其磨损机制表现为在100℃和300℃分别发生黏着磨损和黏着-轻微氧化磨损; 500℃时磨损机制转变为单一氧化磨损, 磨损表面氧化层由FeO、Fe₂O₃和Fe₃O₄组成, 亚表面发生轻微软化并出现塑性变形层; 700℃时磨损进入严重氧化磨损阶段, 氧化物数量急剧增多, 同时由于马氏体基体回复导致材料出现严重软化, 磨损表面形成连续的氧化层. HTCS-130钢优异的热稳定性能使得基体具有较高硬度和更窄的摩擦软化区, 能够更好地支撑氧化层, 从而在700℃下比DAC55钢更耐磨.      

The Microstructure and Properties of Carbon Thin Films on Nanobainitic Steel

The aim of this study was to assess whether it is possible to produce a high adhesive carbon coating by applying low-temperature RFCVD and glow discharge methods on nanobainitic X37CrMoV5-1 steel with and without nitrided sublayer. For this purpose, several methods of investigation were used: observations of coating morphology by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), analysis of bonds found in coatings (Raman spectroscopy), microhardness tests and adhesion of coatings (Scratch tests). Our research has shown that low-temperature RFCVD and glow discharge processes of nanobainitic X37CrMoV5-1 steel allow producing carbon coatings that can be described as hardened carbon coatings with very high hardness—> 2000 HV 0.25 in case of RFCVD processes and > 3300 HV 0.025 for glow discharge process and low friction coefficient—near 0.12 at 5 N load. However, the adhesion of produced coatings to the steel substrate strongly depends on the appropriate selection of the process parameters and on the proper preparation of the substrate before the deposition regarding the thermal stability of nanobainite.

     

Selection of Suitable Tool Materials and Development of Tool Concepts for the Thixoforging of Steels

This paper describes the results of the European project “THIXOCOMP” within the 5th framework programme concerning the material selection and development of tools for the thixoforging of steels. Due to high process temperatures, special requirements are necessary regarding the tool material and the tool concept. Special tool coatings (High Velocity Oxi Fuel, HVOF and Plasma Spray, CAPS) with high strength, high corrosion and oxidation resistance were deposited on substrate materials 1.2367, 1.4841 and 2.4631 to improve the properties of the tool materials. Different laboratory tests were performed to investigate the suitability of the tool systems. Pull tests, micro‐hardness measurements, high temperature corrosion tests and spelling resistance tests were performed to investigate the adhesion of the coatings. The investigation of the thermal shock loading on the coated samples indicated a clear dependence on the base material. Both coatings on the base materials 1.2367 and 1.4841 were removed completely in the spelling resistance tests, so that even in the coated state, they are not suitable as tool materials for the thixoforming of steel. The combination of 2.4631+HVOF provided the best results. Afterwards, thixoforging trials were performed with the nickel‐based alloy, 2.4631. After 30 trials at 1290°C (HS6‐5‐3), the tool showed no macroscopic damages, whereas a deformation of the press channel was already visible after eight forming trials at 1430°C (100Cr6).     

Thixoforging of Steel Using Ceramic Tool Materials

Today thixoforming processes are mainly established in the production of parts made of aluminium alloys. Compared to high melting alloys the process temperature is low and thus the process is easier to handle. Because of process temperatures up to 1470°C thixoforming of steels demands a sophisticated process control and adapted tool materials. In this field there is still a large need for research. This paper deals with experiences made at the IFUM concerning the thixoforging of steel. The use of ceramic tool materials for thixoforging of steel is presented. For this purpose hybrid dies where a ceramic insert is prestressed with a hot working steel shrink ring as well as different stamp geometries were developed and built up. Different ceramic materials from Si₃N₄ to ZrSiO₄ were tested and evaluated. To prevent an unwanted cooling and oxidation of the slug during its transfer, the transfer is carried out encapsulated in high temperature resistant crucibles that can provide a protective atmosphere. The suitability (e.g. thermo shock resistance) of different materials for the use as transport crucibles was also subject of this research work. The forming experiments were carried out with the institute's hydraulic press. The process logic controller of this press offers the appropriate flexibility and various control modes needed for a sophisticated and reproducible filling of the die. In this way the die filling process of different steels can be tested.     

Elevated temperature wear behaviour of CeO2 modified WC-12Co coating

With the service environment becoming more and more severe, WC-Co coatings are required to apply in high temperature wear condition. In the present study, the sliding wear tests of CeO₂ modified WC-12Co coatings were conducted at temperature of 450, 550 and 650 °C. The wear loss and friction coefficient were recorded. The morphologies of wear tracks were observed every 1 h to investigate the dynamic wear mechanisms. The results show that the volume wear loss decreases with temperature increasing. The lowest volume wear loss is obtained at the temperature of 650 °C due to oxide films generated in the process of wearing. The wear mechanism is different at the temperature of 450, 550 and 650 °C. Micro cutting wear, abrasive wear and oxidation wear dominate the wear mechanism at 450, 550 and 650 °C, respectively. Abrasive wear and oxidation wear are the wear mechanisms at various temperatures.     

Wear behavior of as-deposited and oxidized ternary (Zr,Hf)N coatings

In the present study, the tribological performance of ternary (Zr,Hf)N coatings, whose Hf content was varied between 0 and 21 wt pct, has been systematically examined in the as-deposited and oxidized conditions. Coatings were applied on AISI D2 tool steel plates by arc physical vapor deposition (PVD). Oxidation was conducted at 400 °C for times up to 12 hours in air. Wear tests revealed pronounced improvement in the wear resistance with increasing Hf content in the as-deposited coatings. Oxidation for 12 hours yielded more than a fourfold increase in wear resistance. The beneficial effect of Hf on wear resistance decreased upon oxidation.     

Characterization of Steel Thixoforming Tool Materials by High Temperature Compression Tests

The experimental set‐up and the results of high temperature compression tests for the characterization of tool materials for steel thixoforming are presented. The scope of this test is to reproduce the load profile of steel thixoforming processes consisting of mechanical, thermal, tribological, and chemical components on the forming mould. Tool materials were chosen following a concept within the Collaborative Research Center ‐ SFB 289 ‐ “Forming of metals in the semi‐solid state and their properties”. Three materials groups are distinguished: thin film deposited by physical vapor deposition (PVD) and plasma assisted chemical vapour deposition (PACVD), thick coatings (thermal spraying), and bulk ceramic materials. Samples were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron‐dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and X‐Ray diffraction analysis (XRD). The results show varying resistance of the tool materials concerning the load profile. In order to provide an appropriate tool solution for the thixoforming of steels, different load profiles within the forming moulds are identified and the corresponding tool part is made from that material with the best performance.     

Microstructural analysis and oxidation behavior of laser-processed Fe-Cr-AI-Y alloy coatings

Dense crack-free coatings of Fe-Cr-Al-Y quaternary alloy were produced on stainless steel 316L substrates using a continuous wave Nd-YAG solid-state laser coupled with a fiber optic beam delivery system. Experiments were performed at a laser power between 0.6 and 2.4 kW, process speed in the range 0.053 to 0.423 cm/s, powder feed rate fixed at 0.083 g/s, and focused multimode laser beam with a diameter of 0.5 cm. Various microanalysis techniques demonstrated that the coatings were metallurgically bonded to the substrate and possessed thicknesses between 0.35 and 4.64 mm, refined columnar microstructures with grain sizes of 15 to 150 μxm, increased concentration of key alloying elements, and appreciably high microhardness up to 409 kg/mm². The laser-processed microstruc-tures comprised a body-centered cubic (bcc) ferrite(α phase) crystal structure with a relatively large lattice parameter compared to α-Fe due to the enhanced dissolution of varying amounts of Cr, Al, Ni, and Y, depending on the dilution from the substrate material. Oxidation tests conducted in air at temperatures of 1100 ° to 1200 ° for 95 hours revealed the formation of an approximately 5-μm-thick dense α-Al₂O₃ oxide scale of a rhombohedral (hexagonal) crystal structure. The α-Al₂O₃ scale exhibited remarkable high-temperature resistance and strong adherence to the coating surface. Extensive oxidation of the uncoated stainless steel substrate produced a porous and heavily spalled alloy oxide scale about 60-μm thick consisting of FeCr₂O₄ and NiCr₂O₄ with cubic and tetragonal crystal structures, respectively. The retention of the bcc α phase and the insignificant grain growth after oxidation are indicative of the thermal stability of the laser-processed coating microstructures. The obtained results demonstrate that Fe-Cr-Al-Y alloy coatings exhibiting fine-grained hard mi-crostructures, high-temperature oxidation resistance, and strong adherence to stainless steel can be developed by means of laser processing.     

High Temperature Tribological Studies on Surface Engineered Tool Steel and High Strength Boron Steel

The popularity of hot sheet metal forming processes in the recent years has necessitated research efforts to improve tool life and control the friction level during hot forming operations. In this work, the tribological properties of tool steel and ultra high strength boron steel (UHSS) pairs at elevated temperatures have been studied by using a special hot sheet metal forming test rig that closely simulates the conditions prevalent in the real process. This test involves linear unidirectional sliding of a preheated UHSS sheet between two tool steel specimens where new workpiece material is continuously in contact with the tool surface. The study is aimed at investigating different surface treatments/coatings applied on either the tool or sheet surface or on both. The results have shown that it is possible to control the coefficients of friction through surface treatments and coatings of the tool and workpiece materials. The application of a coating onto the sheet material has a greater influence on the friction compared to changing the tool steel surface. After running‐in, the investigated tool steel variants show almost similar frictional behaviour when sliding against the same sheet material. Although coating the UHSS sheet reduces friction, it abrades the tool surface and also results in transfer of the sheet coating material to the tool surface.     

Effects of the Ambient Temperature and Load on the Wear Performances and Mechanisms of H13 Steel

The dry sliding wear tests of H13 steel were performed under atmospheric conditions under various ambient temperatures and loads; the wear performances and the wear mechanisms were studied. At room temperature (RT), the wear loss of the steel gradually increased with increasing the load. An adhesive wear prevailed with little tribo-oxides on the worn surfaces. Under the atmospheric conditions at 473 K (200 °C) and a load of 100 N or above, a mild oxidation wear prevailed with about 20-μm thickness of tribo-oxide layer forming on the asperities of worn surfaces. The wear loss first reduced and then slightly increased with increasing the load. Compared with the other ambient temperatures, the wear at 473 K (200 °C) retained the lowest wear loss due to the protection of the tribo-oxide layer. As the ambient temperature reached 673 K (400 °C), the wear loss increased with increasing load, leading to higher wear than those observed at RT and at 473 K (200 °C). The predominant wear mechanism at 673 K (400 °C) was oxidation wear, unlike mild oxidation wear, which dominated at 473 K (200 °C).     

Effect of Microstructure on the Accelerated Creep of 20CrMoV12‐1 and P 91 Steels

In the initial part the change of microstructure for steel X20 CrMoV 121 is discussed in terms of the distribution of carbide precipitates and its effects on accelerated creep resistance and hardness are presented. In the following, experimental results of microstructure and accelerated creep resistance are presented for the steels X20CrMoV 121 and P91 annealed for up to 8760 hours at 650°C and 750°C before the testing. A similar evolution of the distribution of carbide particles of a size above 102 nm is found for both steels, while the accelerated creep resistance is diminished much stronger for the steel X20CrMoV 121. This difference is due to a greater stability of NbC than that of VC precipitates, both related to the evolution of the chemical composition of complex chromium, molybdenum and iron carbide particles.     

热等静压法制备NbC颗粒增强45CrMoV复合材料的组织与性能

采用机械球磨和热等静压(hot isostatic press,HIP)相结合的方法制备NbC颗粒增强45CrMoV弹簧钢基复合材料(NbCp/45CrMoV),观察该材料的显微组织、增强颗粒分布和界面结合情况,检测其相对密度、硬度、拉伸性能和摩擦磨损性能,并探讨其断裂行为和磨损机理。结果表明,NbCp/45CrMoV复合材料的组织均匀细小,NbC颗粒均匀地弥散分布在基体之中,且与基体界面结合良好,相对密度达到99%以上。与45CrMoV弹簧钢相比,该材料的硬度和弹性模量增大,分别为44 HRC和208 GPa,抗拉强度略有降低,为1 250 MPa;伸长率由11%减小到2%;耐磨性能大幅提高,特别是在高载荷下,例如700 N时,质量磨损只有HIP 45CrMoV的1/4,摩擦因数有所增大。     

Interface Characterization of Abrasion Resistant Coatings Co‐Extruded on Steel Substrates

Materials with high resistance against abrasive wear are of interest for many tool applications e.g. in mining industry. A special issue is the cladding of these materials to low alloyed substrates for new protection purposes. A novel manufacturing route via direct hot extrusion of bulk steel bars and pre‐sintered tool steel powders was applied. In this manner, wear resistant claddings of PM tool steels on steel substrates were obtained. The microstructures at the interfaces between the steel substrate cores and the wear resistant coatings were characterized by means of optical and scanning electron microscopy (OM and SEM/EDX) and electron‐probe microanalysis (EPMA). Hardness maps and profiles, as well as tensile tests on miniaturized samples were performed to obtain mechanical properties. Concentration profiles were calculated using the commercial software DICTRA showing a good agreement with the experiments. Carbon diffuses against the concentration gradient due to a higher activity into the substrate material leading to an increase of carbide volume fractions close to the interface. The mechanical tests show a brittle fracture region with high hardness localized about 50 μm away from the interface in the coating material.