A process planning strategy for removing arbitrary and axially symmetric profile by a polishing process

In this study, a machining strategy for a polishing process to remove an arbitrary and axially symmetric profile is proposed. The strategy is to plan the tool motion so that a desired profile can be accurately machined. From the volume removing analysis of a polishing process, it is suggested that the dwelling time of the tool at a position should be a linear function of the product of the depth to be removed by its corresponding radius. By using this strategy, three types of errors may be induced: the machining time–distribution error, the ripple error and the resolution error. It is shown that these errors are related to the profile, the tool step, the volume removing rate and the size of the machining zone. The qualitative and quantitative properties of these errors are analyzed. This analysis indicates that a dominant factor in deciding these errors is the tool step size. By increasing this size, both the machining time–distribution error and the resolution error are reduced but the ripple error is enhanced. A tactic is proposed to solve the conflict in choosing the tool step. The experimental study conforms that the proposed strategy can accurately remove an arbitrary profile and the error analysis is reasonable.     

Small-wavelength form error compensation during hydrodynamic polishing

This paper proposes a process control strategy for removing small-wavelength form error during hydrodynamic polishing, that is, by planning a tool dwelling time appropriate to accurately remove the form error. Volume removal analysis suggests that removal of an arbitrary error profile requires the tool to dwell at a given position for a period that is a linear function of the error profile. The dwelling-time distribution of the tool is solved by the non-negative least squares method. The residual error between the actual and desired profile is induced by this strategy. Residual error occurs mainly at the peaks and valleys of the profile, in addition to the boundaries of the machining area. Results indicate that the dominant factors in deciding residual error are the size of the machining zone, tool step, and wavelength and amplitude of the error profile. It is shown that larger residual error occurs in bands with wavelengths smaller than the machining zone, and vice versa. If the wavelength is sufficiently large, a small tool step effectively reduces the residual error. Furthermore, large variations in the amplitude of the error profile can be effectively reduced when the wavelength is large. Experimental results confirm that the proposed polishing strategy can remove an arbitrary profile and automatically reduce the small-wavelength errors. However, it is not effective when the wavelength of the error profile is near the size of the machining zone.     

Ultra-precision machining by the cylindrical polishing process

A process planning method for removing an arbitrary and axially symmetric error profile by the cylindrical polishing process (abbreviated as the CPP process) is proposed in this study. This method is to plan the dwelling-time of the polishing tool so that the error profile can be accurately removed. The tool dwelling-time distribution is solved by a non-negative least square method. By using this method, the residual error between actual and desired removal depths may be induced. It is shown that the residual error is related to the width of the machining zone, the wavelength of the error profile, and the tool’s resolution. The computer simulations indicate that the residual error is always negligible when the wavelength of the error profile is larger than the width of the machining zone. If the wavelength of the error profile is large, a small size of the tool’s resolution is found effectively to reduce the residual error. The experimental study confirms that an arbitrary error profile can be accurately removed on the basis of the proposed method.     

Ultra-precision machining by the hydrodynamic polishing process

This study will examine the feasibility of applying the hydrodynamic polishing (HDP) process as an ultra-precision machining method, which is aimed to compensate the form error of a work surface so that the form precision is improved. To be an ultra-precision machining method, the HDP process is required to have a deterministic machining nature and to have the capability to machine an arbitrary shape. From the machining mechanism, four sets of parameters that dominate the deterministic properties of the process are identified. It is clearly demonstrated from the experimental study that the HDP process is deterministic if the identified parameters are well controlled. To machine an arbitrary shape, a machining principle is proposed. From this principle, a square slot with uniform depth and a semi-cylindrical profile with parabolic cross-section can be accurately obtained by the HDP process. Hence, the HDP process can be a promising method to compensate form error for the ultra-precision purpose.     

Experimental determination of the tool–chip thermal contact conductance in machining process

Tool–chip contact is still a challenging issue that affects the accuracy in numerical analysis of machining processes. The tool–chip contact phenomenon can be considered from two points of view: mechanical and thermal contacts. Although, there is extensive published literature which addresses the friction modeling of the tool–chip interface, the thermal aspects of the tool–chip contact have not been investigated adequately. In this paper, an experimental procedure is adopted to determine the average thermal contact conductance (TCC) in the tool–chip contact area in the machining operation. The tool temperature and the heat flux in tool–chip contact area were determined by inverse thermal solution. Infra-red thermography was also used to measure the average chip temperature near the tool–chip interface. To investigate the effects of the work piece material properties on the tool–chip TCC, AISI 1045, AISI 304 and Titanium materials were considered in the machining experiments. Effects of the cutting parameters such as cutting velocity and feed rate on TCC were also investigated. Evaluating the tool–chip thermal contact conductance for the tested materials shows that TCC is directly proportional to the thermal conductivity and inversely proportional to the mechanical strength of the work piece. The thermal contact conductance presented in this paper can be used in the future numerical and analytical modeling of the machining process to achieve more accurate simulations of the temperature distribution in the cutting zone and better understanding of the tool–chip contact phenomena.     

关联系统动静态特征端面磨削表面创成机理

目的 关联主轴系统动静态特征,研究端面磨削表面创成机理.方法 以粉末冶金不锈钢316L为研究对象,首先构建关联主轴系统动静态特征的有限元模型,分析主轴系统动静态特征对砂轮端面各位置位移大小的影响.然后基于端面砂轮表面磨粒的位置和尺寸信息,建立端面砂轮磨粒三维空间轨迹方程,推导相邻磨粒运动关系式,采用轮廓搜索法确定端面磨削表面的动静态创成过程.最后,结合端面磨削加工实验,分析端面磨削系统动态、静态特征对加工表面粗糙度与轮廓度的影响规律,阐释加工表面材料去除不均匀的本质,并提出创成表面质量的参数化修正方法.结果 靠近砂轮边缘的磨粒静态退让量大于靠近砂轮中心部分的磨粒静态退让量,但不同位置的磨粒动态振动量差异不大.静态退让量随切深的增加而增大,动态振动量随砂轮转速的增加而增大.结论 砂轮表面磨粒的静态退让性是造成加工表面轮廓度误差的重要因素,同时主轴系统动态振动特征会影响加工表面粗糙度.分析可得,砂轮转速在400 r/min左右,与之匹配无理数转速比的工件转速和较小的法向切深,可提高端面磨削表面质量表征.     

并联机床数控加工的刀具瞬时包络面轮廓线研究

文章对用并联机床进行曲面加工,处于两个加工刀位之间的刀具的平移和旋转的运动速度进行了分析.通过引入在一般运动情况下(包括旋转和平移),通用锥形刀具的瞬时包络面轮廓线的求解公式,得到了用并联机床数控加工中刀具的瞬时包络面轮廓线的解法.对这些轮廓线进行放样处理就可以创建刀具的包络面体.应用上述研究成果可以模拟并联机床曲面加工中已加工表面的形状,文中最后给出了计算实例并进行了验证.     

Optimized feed scheduling in three axes machining. Part I: Fundamentals of the optimized feed scheduling strategy

An optimized feed scheduling strategy is proposed in this paper to maximize the metal removal rate in 3-axis machining while guaranteeing the machining accuracy. The tool path is assumed defined by a cubic parametric form. In part I of this paper, the fundamentals of this strategy are presented. This strategy integrates the feed drive dynamics, described by the acceleration/deceleration (Acc/Dec) profile, with the minimum-time trajectory planning in order to achieve the desired feed rate at the appropriate position. An optimum use of the feed drive capabilities is considered to track the changes in the cutting geometry along the tool path and to ensure an acceptable contour error. Therefore, this strategy combines different constraints and various criteria in modifying the feed rate to maintain a near-constant cutting force resulting in a highly non-linear problem. The constraints include the cutting force magnitude, the feed rate boundaries, the contour error and the characteristics of the (Acc/Dec) profile of the different feed drive systems. The criteria are the maximum production rate, the machining accuracy and safety. In part II of this paper, the effectiveness of this strategy is demonstrated using ball end mill operation on a workpiece that provides variable cutting geometry along a non-linear tool path. The performance of this strategy in terms of productivity, machining safety, and machining accuracy, is compared to a feed scheduling strategy based on control points as well as to milling with constant feed rate.     

数控车削多面体的误差分析及其补偿

在数控车床上利用旋转的车刀车削多面体时,存在着一定的加工误差,并且,其加工误差的大小与刀具长度成反比,与工件直径成正比.文章提出通过实时改变刀具与工件间中心距的方法来进行误差补偿,并给出了具体的误差补偿公式,而且可以直接应用于数控插补计算.采用这种误差补偿方法可以大大地提高车削多面体的精度,扩大车削多面体的尺寸范围.     

Reduction of tool wear during hydrodynamic polishing: A ‘rock-and-roll’ polishing strategy

In this paper, a ‘rock-and-roll’ polishing strategy is proposed for reducing the influence of tool wear on machining rates during hydrodynamic polishing. An analytical study suggests that the radius of curvature of spherical tools changes rapidly during the tool wear process. In addition, variations in the tool radius have a significant effect on machining rates. Increasing the contact length of the tool rapidly decreases the variation in the tool's radius of curvature. A rock-and-roll polishing strategy is therefore proposed to increase the contact length of the tool. This strategy is proposed to design the tool's rocking motion with an appropriate dwelling-time distribution so as to increase the area (or contact length) of the wear zone and create a uniform wear depth, which will in turn reduce the variation in the tool radius. A separate volume removing analysis of the tool wear suggests that the dwelling time of a tool at a given position can be determined for a given wear depth and wear rate. Finally, an experimental study confirms that the proposed strategy can reduce the variation in the tool's radius of curvature and that the effect of tool wear on the machining rate can be suppressed.     

The feedrate scheduling of parametric interpolator with geometry,process and drive constraints for multi-axis CNC machine tools

Parametric interpolator has been widely adopted in machining sculptured parts. Accordingly, the feedrate scheduling of parametric interpolator plays a role in CNC machine tools especially for multi-axis machines with linear and rotary axes, since a smooth movement is beneficial for achieving better surface geometry as well as shorter machining time. This paper presents a new feedrate scheduling method for the five-axis machining of geometrically complex part with geometry, process and drive constraints. The satisfaction conditions of constraints are first built and the proportional adjustment of feedrate sensitive regions is proved to be suitable for simultaneously reducing the magnitudes of constraints such as angular acceleration, linear acceleration, axis accelerations and jerks. The initial feedrate profile is first constructed with confined chord error, angular velocity and axis velocities owing to the independence of these constraints. Then, for each iterative adjustment a curve evolution strategy is used to deform the target feedrate profile to the adjusted positions instead of the re-interpolation of feedrate profile, until the final desired feedrate profile is achieved without violated constraints. Simulations and experiments are conducted and the results validate the performances of the proposed method.     

A method of tool path compensation for repeated machining process

This paper proposes a software method to compensate for the contour error in repeated machining process. In the proposed method, the profile of the first machined part is measured by a coordinate measuring machine. Based on the measured data, the tool path is modified by a compensation algorithm, and then, is represented by a series of linear segments. Finally, the compensated tool path is fed to the CNC machine tool for the machining of subsequent parts. Mathematical analysis and experimental evaluation are presented in this paper.     

Optimized tool path generation based on dynamic programming for five-axis flank milling of rule surface

This paper presents a computation scheme that generates optimized tool path for five-axis flank milling of ruled surface. Tool path planning is transformed into a matching problem between two point sets in 3D space, sampled from the boundary curves of the machined surface. Each connection in the matching corresponds to a possible tool position. Dynamic programming techniques are applied to obtain the optimal combination of tool positions with the objective function as machining error. The error estimation considers both the deviation induced by the cutter at discrete positions and the one between them. The path planning problem is thus solved in a systematic manner by formulizing it as a mathematical programming task. In addition, the scheme incorporates several optimization parameters that allow generating new patterns of tool motion. Implementation results obtained from simulation and experiment indicate that our method produces better machining quality. This work provides a concise but effective approach for machining error control in five-axis flank milling.     

数控机床动态轨迹误差仿真与优化研究

在介绍数控机床加工轨迹运动控制原理的基础上,对数控机床动态轨迹误差进行了仿真研究,得出数控机床动态轨迹误差与拟加工曲线的曲率和机床进给速度相关的结论。在待加工的工件几何曲线曲率已定情况下,提出了变进给速度的数控机床动态轨迹误差优化策略,仿真结果表明:该控制策略能够有效地减少机床动态轨迹误差量,提高相关轨迹曲线的加工精度。     

A novel adaptive-feedrate interpolation method for NURBS tool path with drive constraints

Feedrate scheduling is crucial for CNC systems to generate a smooth movement which is able to satisfy increasing requirements on machining quality and efficiency. In this paper, a novel adaptive feedrate interpolation method is proposed for NURBS tool path with drive constraints. The tool path is first expressed in NURBS form, and then the satisfaction conditions of drive constraints are derived according to the kinematic and geometric characteristics of the NURBS tool path. On this base, a proportional adjustment algorithm, which can quantitatively reduce the accelerations and jerks of drive axes at the sensitive regions of feed profile, is proposed to achieve the new positions of violated sampling points. After each adjustment, a curve evolution strategy is used to ensure the feed profile is locally or globally deformed to the target positions with a good smoothness of path curve and the avoidance of re-interpolation. Through the iterative adjustment, a smooth feed profile with limited velocities, accelerations and jerks of drive axes is thus yielded along the entire tool path. Finally, performances of the proposed method are validated by performing both simulations and experiments on two freeform NURBS curves. The results show the effectiveness and reliability of the proposed feedrate interpolation method.     

Development of electrostatic solid lubrication system for improvement in machining process performance

Liquid lubricants have traditionally been used to control the high heat generation in machining; however, the use of cutting fluid has become more problematic in terms of both employee health and environmental pollution. Minimization or possible elimination of cutting fluids substituting their functions by some other means is emerging as a thrust area of research in machining. Solid lubricant assisted machining is a novel concept to control the machining zone temperature without polluting the environment. The focus of this study is to explore the possibility of application of graphite as a lubricating medium in drilling of AISI 4340 steel, as a means to reduce the heat generated due to friction, towards finding an alternative to conventional coolants. To this end, an optimized solid lubricant application method, electrostatic solid lubrication experimental setup has been envisaged for effective supply of solid lubricant mixture as a high velocity jet and at an extremely low flow rate to the machining zone, thus meeting environmental requirements. The process performance is judged in terms of thrust force, tool wear, chip thickness, hole diameter and surface finish of machined workpiece keeping the other conditions constant. A comparison with the results obtained in wet and dry machining is also provided. The results obtained from the experiments show the effectiveness of the use of the solid lubricant as a viable alternative to wet and dry machining through reduction in the cutting zone temperature and favourable change in chip–tool and work–tool interaction. The proper selection and application of solid lubricant can lead to low cost, and this concept could emerge as an effective alternative to conventional coolants.     

The prediction of dimensional error for sculptured surface productions using the ball-end milling process. Part 2: Surface generation model and experimental verification

This paper presents a surface generation model for sculptured surface productions using the ball-end milling process. In this model, machining errors caused by tool deflections are studied. As shown in Part 1 of this paper, instantaneous horizontal cutting forces can be evaluated from the cutting geometries using mechanistic force models. In this paper, a tool deflection model is developed to calculate the corresponding horizontal tool deflection at the surface generation points on the cutter. The sensitivity of the machining errors to tool deflections, both in magnitude and direction, has been analyzed via the deflection sensitivity of the surface geometry. Machining errors are then determined from the tool deflection and the deflection sensitivity of the designed surface. The ability of this model in predicting dimensional errors for sculptured surfaces produced by the ball-end milling process has been verified by a machining experiment. In addition to providing a means to predict dimensional accuracy prior to actual cutting, this surface generation model can also be used as a tool for quality control and machining planning.     

Analysis–synthesis of dimensional deviation of the machining feature for discrete-part manufacturing processes

Dimensional deviation analysis has been an active and important research topic in mechanical design, manufacturing processes, and manufacturing systems. This paper proposes a comprehensive dimensional deviation evaluation framework for discrete-part manufacturing processes (DMP). A generic, explicit, and transmission model is developed to describe the dimensional deviation accumulation of machining processes by means of kinematic analysis of relationships between fixture error, datum error, machine tool geometric error, fixturing force inducing error and the dimensional quality of the product. The developed modeling technology can deal with general fixture configurations. In addition, the local contact deformations of the workpiece–fixture system are determined by solving a nonlinear programming problem of minimizing the total complementary energy of the frictional workpiece–fixture subsystem in machining system. Moreover, the deviation of an arbitrary point on machining feature can be also evaluated based on a point deviation model with prediction dimension deviation from the transmission model. The dimensional error transmission within the machining process is quantitatively described in this model. A systematic procedure to construct the model is presented and validated. This model can be also applied to process design evaluation for complicated machining processes.     

Feedrate scheduling strategies for free-form surfaces

Free-form machining is one of the commonly used manufacturing processes for several industries such as automobile, aerospace, die and mold industries. In 3D complicated free-form surfaces, it is critical, but often difficult, to select applicable cutting conditions to achieve high productivity while maintaining high quality of parts. It is essential to optimize the feedrate in order to improve the machining efficiency of the ball-end milling. Conservative constant feedrate values have been mostly used up to now since there was a lock of physical models and optimization tools for the machining processes.The common approach used in feedrate scheduling is material removal rate (MRR) model. In the MRR based approach, feedrate is inversely proportional to either average or instantaneous volumetric removal rate. Commonly used CAM programs and NC code generators based on only the geometric and volumetric analysis, but they do not concern the physics of the free-form machining process yet. The new approach that is also introduced in this paper is based on the mechanics of the process. In other words, the force-based models in which feedrate is set to values which keep either average or instantaneous machining forces to prescribed values. In this study, both feedrate scheduling strategies are compared theoretically and experimentally for 3D ball-end milling of free-form surfaces. It is shown that MRR based feedrate strategy outputs higher feedrate values compared to force based feedrate strategy. High feedrate values of the MRR strategy increase the cutting forces extensively which can be damaging to the part quality and to the CNC Machine.When the new force based feedrate-scheduling strategy introduced in this paper is used, it is shown that the machining time can be decreased significantly along the tool path. The force-based feedrate scheduling strategy is tested under various cutting conditions and some of the results are presented in the paper.     

High speed servo control of multi-axis machine tools

Advances in high-speed machining technology, including those in spindle speeds and cutters, are out-pacing advances in the servo control performance of machine tools. To close this gap, new machine tools and improved controls must be developed. Improvements to machine tools under development include special-purpose machine tools, the use of advanced materials, the replacement of ball screws and ways with linear motors and roller guides, and the use of parallel link actuators. This paper focuses on the control issues that will become increasingly important as these high-speed machining and high-speed machine tool advances are realized.The main issues in high-speed servo control are feed rate planning, and servo loop control laws. A method is developed in this paper which takes advantage of the full performance envelope of each axis in an arbitrary path. This near-complete usage of the servo capabilities of a machine tool results in reduced cycle time or reduced path error. A servo loop control law is then developed that uses the axis performance envelope as well as instantaneous position, velocity, and acceleration information of the target path and machine axis to improve servo performance in the presence of disturbances.