Introduction to special section: The role of longitudinal data with child psychopathology and treatment: Preliminary comments and issues.

Longitudinal data can play an important role in child psychopathology and treatment. This article introduces a review of some of the research questions that longitudinal designs can answer and how longitudinal studies have been used in evaluating traditional syndromes in child clinical psychology. The articles in this special section are then introduced. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of fathers in child and adolescent psychopathology: Make room for daddy.

Summarizes research concerning the relation between paternal factors and child and adolescent psychopathology. When compared with mothers, fathers continue to be dramatically underrepresented in developmental research on psychopathology. However, findings from studies of children of clinically referred fathers and nonreferred samples of children and their fathers indicate that there is substantial association between paternal characteristics and child and adolescent psychopathology. Findings from studies of fathers of clinically referred children are stronger for fathers' effects on children's externalizing than internalizing problems. In most cases the degree of risk associated with paternal psychopathology is comparable to that associated with maternal psychopathology. Evidence indicates that the presence of paternal psychopathology is a sufficient but not necessary condition for child or adolescent psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Common and specific correlates of preadolescent internalizing and externalizing psychopathology.

The specificity of various child characteristics and environmental correlates of childhood internalizing and externalizing problems was examined using both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses (from ages 2–3 and 4–5 years) in a general population sample of 10–11-year-olds. Specificity was defined according to a between-subjects and a within-subjects method, using parent and teacher reports of psychopathology. Temperamental withdrawal, parental internalizing psychopathology, and early single parenthood (for girls) were identified as correlates that are specific for internalizing problems, whereas temperamental high general activity level was identified as externalizing-specific. Further, parenting stress, poor school results (only for boys), and stressful life events (only for girls) were found to be common correlates of psychopathology. Research implications regarding the findings and the use of a within-subjects method are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of externalizing problems in children: The role of longitudinal data.

Prospective longitudinal studies that pertain to the stability, developmental pathways, and long-term outcome for the 2 primary forms of externalizing behavior problems (conduct problems [CPs] and hyperactivity [HA]) are described. Treatment outcome studies for CPs and HA with at least 1 yr of follow-up data are reviewed. The implications of longitudinal research for the diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of externalizing behavior problems in children are discussed. Greater attention must be paid to issues related to comorbidity, developmentally appropriate assessments, and long-term outcome of interventions. Longitudinal-experimental investigations that serve to delineate developmental pathways as well as assess the effects of developmentally sensitive, comprehensive interventions are recommended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A prospective longitudinal study of attachment disorganization/disorientation

The research explores the antecedents and consequences of attachment disorganization from a prospective longitudinal perspective. The relations of attachment disorganization/disorientation to endogenous (e.g., maternal medical history, infant temperament) and environmental (e.g., maternal caregiving quality, infant history of abuse) antecedents and to behavioral consequences from 24 months to 19 years are examined. For the 157 participants in the longitudinal study, attachment disorganization was correlated significantly with environmental antecedents (e.g., maternal relationship and risk status, caregiving quality, and infant history of maltreatment), but not with available endogenous antecedents. Infant history of attachment disorganization was correlated with consequent variables related to mother-child relationship quality at 24 and 42 months, child behavior problems in preschool, elementary school and high school, and psychopathology and dissociation in adolescence. Structural models suggest that disorganization may mediate the relations between early experience and later psychopathology and dissociation. The findings are considered within a developmental view of psychopathology, that is, pathology defined in terms of process, as a pattern of adaptation constructed by individuals in their environments.     

Parental alcoholism and childhood psychopathology.

We reviewed studies about children of alcoholic parents published between 1975 and 1985 to clarify the relation between parental alcoholism and child psychopathology. We identified methodological problems in this body of literature and organized substantive findings around eight areas of outcome: (a) hyperactivity and conduct disorder; (b) substance abuse, delinquency, and truancy; (c) cognitive functioning; (d) social inadequacy; (e) somatic problems; (f) anxiety and depressive symptoms; (g) physical abuse; and (h) dysfunctional family interactions. The literature as a whole supported the contention that parental alcoholism is associated with a heightened incidence of child symptoms of psychopathology, in comparison with no increased incidence in offspring of nondisturbed parents. However, neither all nor a major portion of the population of children from alcoholic homes are inevitably doomed to childhood psychological disorder. Findings are discussed in terms of causality, child resiliency, and potential qualifying factors, such as variations in family disruption. Recommendations are presented regarding methodological improvements, possible mediating variables, and a multiple-risk conceptualization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does Poor Vagal Tone Exacerbate Child Maladjustment in the Context of Parental Problem Drinking? A Longitudinal Examination.

Children's vagal tone was examined as a vulnerability factor in the longitudinal relation between mothers' (MPD) and fathers' (FPD) problem drinking and children's adjustment. At T1, MPD and FPD were examined, and children's vagal tone was assessed. Two years following initial participation, child adjustment problems were evaluated. A lower level of vagal tone was a vulnerability factor for internalizing problems associated with MPD and FPD and for externalizing difficulties associated with MPD. In the context of a higher level of MPD or FPD, a lower level of vagal tone was a vulnerability factor for increases in externalizing problems over time. Results are supportive of the importance of biopsychosocial perspectives in which child characteristics interact with family risk to predict psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Common and specific features of childhood psychopathology.

This article describes a conceptual and data-analytic model for characterizing different levels of common and specific features of child psychopathology: common features, which differentiate psychopathology from normality; broadband-specific features, which differentiate internalizing problems (e.g., anxiety, somatization) from externalizing problems (e.g., aggression, hyperactivity); and narrowband-specific features, which differentiate different narrowband syndromes (e.g., anxiety from somatization, hyperactivity from aggression) within each of the broadband syndromes. As an illustration of the model, data for 6 cognitive variables (e.g., global self-worth, causal attributions) are related to 6 psychopathology domains (e.g., aggression, depression) in a sample of 204 children. It is suggested that common features may be related to severity of psychopathology, whereas specific features may be more related to differentiation of psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is youth victimization related to trauma symptoms and depression after controlling for prior symptoms and family relationships? A longitudinal, prospective study

The common finding linking symptoms such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression with youth victimization (e.g., sexual abuse) might well be artifactual if preexisting psychopathology or disturbed family relationships create a common risk for both later victimization and later symptoms. This study used a longitudinal, prospective design to examine this issue. In a national random sample telephone survey, children 10 to 16 years old were interviewed and then reinterviewed approximately 15 months later about psychological problems, family relationships and victimization experiences that had occurred in the interim. Victimization in the interim was associated with PTSD-related symptoms and depression measured at Time 2, even after controlling for these symptoms and the quality of the parent-child relationship at Time 1. The association was particularly strong for sexual abuse, parental assault, and kidnapping experiences. However, these data also suggest that some of the apparent association found in cross-sectional studies between victimization and psychopathology may be due to prior psychopathology (but not parent-child relationship problems), which puts children at risk for both victimization and later symptoms.     

The association between psychopathology in fathers versus mothers and children's internalizing and externalizing behavior problems: A meta-analysis.

In light of the selective focus on maternal (vs. paternal) psychopathology as a risk factor for child development, this meta-analysis examines the relative strength of the association between psychopathology in mothers versus fathers and the presence of internalizing and externalizing disorders in children. Associations were stronger between maternal than paternal psychopathology and the presence of internalizing (but not externalizing) problems in children, with all average effect sizes being small in magnitude. Relations were moderated by variables that highlight theoretically relevant differences between psychopathology in mothers versus fathers (e.g., age of children studied, type of parental psychopathology) and by variables related to methodological differences across studies (e.g., method of assessing psychopathology in parents and children, type of sample recruited, familial composition). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychopathology of childhood: Research problems and issues.

Argues that research on child psychopathology would benefit from reducing the influence of adult treatment models and from applying a developmental perspective to clinical research on children. Specific methodological problems are discussed, including the assessment of S characteristics; the use of replicable and generalizable diagnostic classifications; the effects of situational specificity and developmental variance on measures of children's behavior; the need to avoid pathological biases in judging children; relationships among correlation, causation, and prediction in a developmental context; problems in measuring change; and the effects of age, cohort, and time of measurement, as well as fallacies in drawing longitudinal conclusions from cross-sectional data. Research needs are also identified, including the need to devise and use well-standardized measures; the need to evaluate interactions between S and treatment variables in outcome research; the need for long-term follow-ups of children identified as being at risk; the need for cumulative programmatic research; and the need to link research more closely to service systems. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nature over nurture: Temperament, personality, and life span development.

Temperaments are often regarded as biologically based psychological tendencies with intrinsic paths of development. It is argued that this definition applies to the personality traits of the five-factor model. Evidence for the endogenous nature of traits is summarized from studies of behavior genetics, parent–child relations, personality structure, animal personality, and the longitudinal stability of individual differences. New evidence for intrinsic maturation is offered from analyses of NEO Five-Factor Inventory scores for men and women age 14 and over in German, British, Spanish, Czech, and Turkish samples (N?=?5,085). These data support strong conceptual links to child temperament despite modest empirical associations. The intrinsic maturation of personality is complemented by the culturally conditioned development of characteristic adaptations that express personality; interventions in human development are best addressed to these. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Life stress, maternal optimism, and adolescent competence in single mother, African American families.

Although research demonstrates many negative family outcomes associated with single-parent households, little is known about processes that lead to positive outcomes for these families. Using 3 waves of longitudinal data, we examined how maternal dispositional optimism and life stressors are associated with parenting and child outcomes in 394 single mother African American families. Confirming prior research, we found that mothers' childhood adversities, current economic pressure, and internalizing problems were associated with lower levels of maternal warmth and child management and with lower child school competence. Extending previous studies, we found that maternal optimism was a positive resource, predicting lower levels of maternal internalizing symptoms and higher levels of effective child management and moderating the impact of economic stress on maternal internalizing problems. These findings highlight the need for further investigation of processes and resources that promote positive outcomes for African American mother-headed families and single mother families in general. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of mother's parenting practices on child internalizing trajectories following partner violence.

Studies of children's functioning following exposure to a traumatic event rarely have investigated change over the weeks following the event, but examining recovery in the short aftermath of a traumatic event is important for understanding vulnerability to subsequent disorder, as well as the potential utility of preventive interventions. Data are reported from a short-term longitudinal study of 35 mother-child dyads over 14 weeks following exposure to an incident of severe intimate partner violence. Using a developmental-ecological framework, we proposed that maternal parenting practices would be associated with children's recovery, and that maternal distress would be associated with her parenting practices. Consistent with hypotheses, observed parenting practices at baseline predicted the trajectory of children's self-reported internalizing problems over the study period. Maternal mental health problems were associated with child depression symptoms, but not with overall child internalizing symptoms. Parenting was not associated with maternal mental health symptoms. Further studies should pay closer attention to the role of parenting in children's adjustment in the aftermath of a traumatic event. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accelerating longitudinal research on child psychopathology: A practical example.

Accelerated longitudinal analyses link longitudinal data obtained for multiple birth cohorts. These analyses were used to determine whether longitudinal data obtained on children in 1 cohort could predict outcomes of psychopathology in another cohort. Seven cohorts of Dutch children were assessed 5 times at 2-yr intervals. Individual Ss from different cohorts were matched on Child Behavior Checklist total problem scores at 2 ages. Over 2-, 4-, and 6-yr intervals, between cohort correlations were nearly as high as within-cohort correlations. However, between-cohort correlations were only similar to within-cohort correlations when they included at least 1 of the 2 ages at which Ss were matched. The results support accelerated longitudinal analysis as a method of combining short-term longitudinal studies of behavioral-emotional problems into a longer longitudinal study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neuropsychological changes in children with cancer: the treatment of missing data in longitudinal studies

Researchers conducting longitudinal studies with children or adults are inevitably confronted with problems of attrition and missing data. Missing data in longitudinal studies is frequently handled by excluding from analyses those cases for whom data are incomplete. This approach to missing data is not optimal. On the one hand, if data are missing at random, then dropping incomplete cases ignores information collected on those cases that could be used to improve estimates of population parameters (e.g., means, variances, covariances, and growth rates) and improve the power of significance tests of statistical hypotheses. On the other hand, if data are not missing at random, then dropping incomplete cases leads to biased parameter estimates and hypothesis tests that may be internally and externally invalid. This study uses three years of follow-up data from a longitudinal investigation of neuropsychological outcomes of cancer in children to demonstrate the problems presented by missing data in repeated measures designs and some solutions. In evaluating potential biasing effects of attrition, the study extends previous research on neuropsychological outcomes in pediatric cancer by inclusion of patients whose disease had relapsed, and by comparison of surviving and nonsurviving patients. Although the data presented have specific relevance to the study of neuropsychological outcome in pediatric cancer, the problems of missing data and the solutions presented are relevant to a wide variety of diseases and conditions of interest to researchers in child and adult neuropsychology.     

Early childhood intervention: A promising preventative for juvenile delinquency.

Programs to reduce or prevent juvenile delinquency have been generally unsuccessful. Apparently the risk factors that make a child prone to delinquency are based in too many systems, including the individual, the family, and community networks, to make isolated treatment methods effective. Surprisingly, longitudinal studies of some early childhood intervention programs suggest they may help to reduce future delinquency. These programs take an ecological approach to enhancing child development by attempting to promote overall social competence in the many systems impacting on children. Not engaging in criminal acts is one indicator of competence that is related to others, such as being successful in school and in personal relationships. Evaluators must gather more data to confirm this unanticipated benefit of comprehensive interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predictors of child psychological changes during family-based treatment for obesity

OBJECTIVE: To explore the influence of 1-year changes in child obesity and maternal psychopathology on changes in child psychological problems. DESIGN: Hierarchical regression models were used to predict child psychological change, with demographic variables, maternal psychological change, and child percentage overweight change as predictors. SETTING: Pediatric obesity research clinic. PARTICIPANTS: Clinic sample of 116 obese 8- to 12-year-old children and their mothers. INTERVENTIONS: Family-based behavioral weight-control program. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Child psychopathology was assessed via mother-reported Child Behavior Checklists and maternal psychopathology was determined by standardizing scores on the Cornell Medical Index and the Symptoms Checklist-90-Revised. RESULTS: Significant improvements were observed in child percentage overweight (-20.1% overweight), and child and maternal psychopathology. Improved maternal psychopathology accounted for a significant amount of variance in improvements in the Child Behavior Checklist total Problems Scale and internalizing and externalizing problems subscales. Decreased obesity accounted for a significant amount of variance in improvements in the Total Competence scale and, somatic complaints, social problems and social competence subscales of the Child Behavior Checklist. Significant interactions of child obesity change by sex were found for Total Problems and externalizing scores. The interactions were due to girls with greater obesity reduction showing greater improvement in Total Problems, whereas boys with greater obesity reduction showed less improvement in externalizing problems. CONCLUSIONS: These results highlight the multidimensional nature of psychosocial functioning in obese children and call attention to multiple avenues for intervention to improve their psychosocial functioning.     

Does marital conflict cause child maladjustment? Directions and challenges for longitudinal research.

Although the association between marital conflict and child adjustment problems has been well documented, there is no empirical evidence that conflict actually causes maladjustment. The investigation of causation requires theoretically and empirically informed longitudinal research. Two topics are addressed to facilitate such research. First, how marital conflict may lead to adjustment problems is outlined, with a focus on constructs that are likely to be critical to any theory on this topic. Second, several issues are identified that need to be addressed in longitudinal research on the mechanisms underlying the link between marital and child problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental psychopathology in children of depressed mothers.

It is suggested that the tripartite model by R. D. Parke et al (1988) of the ways that parents influence their child's social development might be used to organize the study of abnormal development in children of depressed mothers. Parents influence their child through dyadic interaction, coaching and teaching practices, and managing their child's social environment. Disruption in each of these areas has been associated with parental psychopathology and has been implicated in the development of deviant child outcomes. The components of a theoretical model of developmental psychopathology are outlined, as well as theoretical and methodological problems that have yet to be resolved. Issues of concern include the heterogeneity of maternal diagnoses; distinguishing among genetic, parenting, and environmental effects; matching the level of behavioral analysis with the question being answered; the heterogeneity of child outcomes; age-related effects; bidirectional influences; and the role of paternal psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)