War Zone stress, personal and environmental resources, and PTSD symptoms in Gulf War Veterans: A longitudinal perspective.

Cross-sectional research has demonstrated a link between personal and environmental resources and development of emotional distress after war zone service. Less is known about the longitudinal relationship between resources and distress. The authors addressed this issue in a study of 348 Gulf War returnees tested at 2 time points. Resources decreased and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms increased over time. Time 1 avoidance and family cohesion predicted PTSD symptoms at Time 2. Regression analyses revealed a bidirectional relationship over time between resources and PTSD symptoms. Time 1 resources predicted Time 2 psychopathology after accounting for Time 1 emotional distress. PTSD symptoms at Time 1 also predicted changes in coping and family relationships, even after accounting for Time 1 resources. Findings are consistent with the concept of a loss spiral (Hobfoll, 1989), in which resource factors and emotional sequelae to war stress exert reciprocal effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Longitudinal Examination of Causal Attributions and Depression Symptomatology in Rheumatoid Arthritis.

Objective: Examine longitudinal relationships between causal attributions and depression symptoms in adults with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Study Design: Cross-lagged panel correlations tested the temporal precedence of attributions relative to depression symptoms over 1 year. Participants: Forty-two participants completed self-report instruments on 2 occasions. Main Outcome Measures: The Inventory to Diagnose Depression and the Attributional Style Questionnaire. Results: Time 1 attributions predicted increased levels of depression symptoms at Time 2 after perceived pain and disability were controlled: Time 1 depression symptoms were unrelated to Time 2 attributions. Cross-lagged correlation comparisons revealed statistical dominance for attribution-depression relationships relative to depression-attribution relationships. Conclusions: Results support cognitive diathesis conceptualizations of depression and support cognitive-behavioral treatments for depression in RA. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Long-term stability of depression, anxiety, and stress syndromes.

At Time 1, 3,540 participants completed the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS). At Time 2, 3 to 8 years later, the DASS was readministered to 882 of these participants. There was strong evidence for selective stability of the syndromes of depression, anxiety, and stress. Each Time 2 scale was best predicted by the same scale at Time 1, with no significant increase in prediction from the other 2 Time 1 scales. Stability of the 3 syndromes did not vary systematically over the intervals studied. The results support the longitudinal stability of depression, anxiety, and stress and, in particular, draw attention to the distinction between anxiety symptoms and tension–stress symptoms. The results were interpreted as supporting the existence of syndrome-specific vulnerabilities, over and above a primary general vulnerability to emotional distress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A prospective study of risk factors for unipolar depression.

The purpose of this study was to identify variables that are antecedents for unipolar depression. Information regarding a number of sociodemographic and psychosocial variables was collected on a community sample of adults (N?=?998), 562 of whom were interviewed and diagnosed according to Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia-Research Diagnostic Criteria procedures and received a second assessment on most of the variables. The average time elapsed between Time 1 and Time 2 was 8.3 months. Depressive symptomatology was also assessed with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale CES-D. A number of variables emerged, which predicted both the development of an episode of depression and elevated CES-D scores. These include reporting an elevated level of depressive and other symptoms and having experienced an elevated level of stress. Variables that are predictive of developing an episode of depression include young age, being female, and having had a previous episode of depression. The presence of depressogenic cognitions was uniquely predictive of an elevation of depression symptoms as measured by the CES-D. Virtually no variables demonstrated a significant moderating effect on the stress–depression relation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dimensionality of coping and its relation to depression.

The dimensionality of coping, as measured by 65 items from 3 commonly used instruments, and the relation of coping and stress to concurrent and future depression were studied in a community sample of 742 older (≥50 years old) adults. Measures of coping, stress, and depression were obtained at 2 time points over a 2-year period. Depression was assessed by symptom checklist and by diagnostic interview. Three coping factors—Cognitive Self-Control, Ineffective Escapism, and Solace Seeking—that had adequate psychometric properties and accounted for 25% of the total item variance were identified. Ineffective Escapism was associated with current depression and had a direct and interactive effect on future depression, exacerbating the negative impact of stress rather than acting as a buffer. Although Cognitive Self-Control was unrelated to either concurrent or future depression, Solace Seeking significantly buffered the effect of stress in predicting a future diagnosis of depression. Stress and initial depression level predicted both measures of future depression. Gender (being female) predicted the future diagnosis of depression but not the increase of depressive symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sibling conflict in middle childhood predicts children's adjustment in early adolescence.

Associations between sibling conflict in middle childhood and psychological adjustment in early adolescence were studied in a sample of 80 boys and 56 girls. Parents and children provided self-report data about family relationships and children's adjustment. Parents' hostility to children was assessed from videotaped interactions. Results showed that sibling conflict at Time 1 predicted increases in children's anxiety, depressed mood, and delinquent behavior 2 years later. Moreover, earlier sibling conflict at Time 1 accounted for unique variance in young adolescents' Time 2 anxiety, depressed mood, and delinquent behavior above and beyond the variance explained by earlier maternal hostility and marital conflict. Children's adjustment at Time 1 did not predict sibling conflict at Time 2. Results highlight the unique significance of the earlier sibling relationship for young adolescents' psychological adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping with Gulf War combat stress: Mediating and moderating effects.

The authors examined relationships between method of coping with combat-related stress and psychological symptoms among Gulf War Army personnel (N?=?1,058). Participants were surveyed on return from the Gulf region (Time 1) with the Coping Responses Inventory (R. Moos, 1990) and a measure of combat exposure. Outcomes were symptom measures of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. At Time 2 (18–24 months) participants completed the same symptom measures and an index of postwar stress. Higher proportions of approach-based coping in the war zone were related to lower levels of psychological symptoms. Combat exposure moderated the effects of coping on Time 1 PTSD. Coping predicted changes in symptoms of depression but not PTSD. Combat exposure affected changes in depression through postwar stress but had a direct negative effect on PTSD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A prospective study of stress autonomy versus stress sensitization in adolescents at varied risk for depression.

This longitudinal study investigated the stress autonomy, stress sensitization, and depression vulnerability hypotheses in adolescents across 6 years (i.e., Grades 6 through 12). Participants were 240 children (Time 1 mean age = 11.86, SD = 0.57) who varied in risk for depression on the basis of their mother's history of mood disorders. All analyses were conducted as multilevel models to account for nesting in the data. Results were consistent with the stress sensitization hypothesis. The within-subject relation of stress levels to depressive symptoms strengthened with increasing numbers of prior depressive episodes. In addition, evidence consistent with the vulnerability hypothesis was found. The relation of stress levels to depressive symptoms was stronger for adolescents who were at risk for depression on the basis of maternal depression history and for those who had experienced more depressive episodes through Grade 12. These findings suggest that onsets of depression in adolescents may be predicted by both relatively stable and dynamic transactions between stressful life events and vulnerabilities such as maternal depression and youths' own history of depressive episodes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perfectionism and depression: Longitudinal assessment of a specific vulnerability hypothesis.

The authors tested whether perfectionism dimensions interact with specific stress to predict depression over time. A sample of 103 current and former patients completed measures of perfectionism and depression at Time 1 and measures of stress and depression 4 months later. After controlling for Time 1 depression, self-oriented perfectionism interacted only with achievement stress to predict Time 2 depression. Socially prescribed perfectionism did not interact with achievement or social stress to predict Time 2 depression, but it did predict Time 2 depression as a main effect. The results provide support for the contention that perfectionism dimensions are involved in vulnerability to depression over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A prospective analysis of acceptance of pain and values-based action in patients with chronic pain.

Objective: Acceptance of pain and values-based action appear important in the emotional, physical, and social functioning of individuals with chronic pain. The purpose of the current study was to prospectively investigate these combined processes. Method: 115 patients attending an assessment and treatment course for chronic pain in the U.K. completed a standard set of measures on two occasions separated by an average of 18.5 weeks. Results: Correlation analyses showed that acceptance of pain and values-based action measured at Time 1 were significantly correlated with pain, pain-related distress, pain-related anxiety and avoidance, depression, depression-related interference with functioning, and physical and psychosocial disability measured at Time 2. Multiple regression analyses, in which pain and relevant patient background variables were controlled, showed that the combined acceptance and values measures accounted for between 6.5% and 27.0% of variance in six key measures of patient functioning later in time. Conclusion: These results support the importance of acceptance and values-related processes in relation to chronic pain. These results also encourage continued applications of a functional contextual model of psychopathology, the model underlying Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and related approaches such as Contextual Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal examination of familial risk factors for depression among inner-city African American adolescents.

This research examines longitudinally associations between family risk factors and child and parent depression in 302 urban, low-income, African American adolescents (ages 9-15) and their parents across 2 waves of data collection. Diagnostic data revealed that 7.3% of parents and 3.0% of children at Time 1 and 5.4% of parents and 2.8% of children at Time 2 were clinically depressed. Regression analyses revealed that changes in family functioning were concurrently associated with changes in depression for both children and parents. Specifically, increases in conflict and decreases in parental monitoring were associated with increases in child depressive symptomatology, and increases in conflict and decreases in positive parenting were associated with increases in parental depressive symptomatology. Findings are discussed within a framework of understanding family protective factors and the prevention of depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depressive symptomatology in new mothers: A stress and coping perspective.

The aim of the present research was to test the utility of a stress-coping model of postpartum depression. Data were collected during the last trimester of pregnancy (n?=?197) and twice after the birth (4 weeks, n?=?180, and approximately 5 months, n?=?163). Coping resources and depressive symptomatology were assessed at Time 1, stress and coping were assessed at Time 2, and depressive symptomatology and partner ratings of coping effectiveness were assessed at Times 2 and 3. After control of the effects of initial depression, there was evidence of significant effects of levels of stress and coping responses on the Time 2 and Time 3 outcome measures. There was also some evidence linking coping resources (particularly self-esteem and family support) to postpartum depressive symptomatology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal relations among parental emotional expressivity, children's regulation, and quality of socioemotional functioning.

The role of regulation as a mediator of the relations between maternal emotional expressivity and children's adjustment and social competence was examined when children (N=208) were 4.5 to just 8 years old (Time 1, T1) and 2 years later (Time 2, T2). At T2, as at T1, regulation mediated the relation between positive maternal emotional expressivity and children's functioning. When T1 relations and the stability of variables over time were controlled for in a structural equation model, T2 relations generally were nonsignificant, although parents' dominant negative expressivity predicted high regulation. In contrast, in regressions, the findings for parent positive expressivity, but not negative expressivity, held at T2 when T1 variables were controlled. Thus, relations for negative expressivity, but not positive expressivity, changed with age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Forensic applications of DNA fingerprinting

Although previous research has shown that childhood adversity has long-term effects on adult depression, little is known about the causal pathways involved in these effects. In this report data from a two-wave longitudinal survey of the U.S. household population are used to study these pathways as they affect the association between childhood family violence and adult recurrence of depression. We focus on recurrence of depression because most episodes of clinically significant depression in adulthood occur to persons with a history of depression. We find that chronic interpersonal stress in adulthood mediates the effect of childhood family violence on recurrence of depression, and that childhood family violence modifies the effect of chronic adult interpersonal stress on recurrence of depression. Furthermore, in the absence of chronic adult interpersonal stress there is no association between childhood family violence and adult recurrence of depression.     

The prospective relationship of interpersonal forgiveness and psychological distress symptoms among college women.

Forgiveness has frequently been theorized to be related to decreased psychological distress, and longitudinal survey research is important for the examination of this relationship. The prospective relation of forgiveness to psychological distress symptoms (i.e., depression, anxiety, and stress) at a later time point (an average of 36 weeks later) was examined in a sample of 182 female undergraduate students. Through use of structural equation modeling, it was observed that offense-specific (as compared with dispositional) forgiveness toward an offender of a self-identified interpersonal transgression was significantly negatively related to psychological distress symptoms at Time 2, above and beyond the impact of symptom levels at Time 1. Perceived severity and time since the offense at Time 1 were examined as possible moderators of this relationship; time since offense was found to moderate the relationship between forgiveness and change in psychological distress symptoms between Time 1 and Time 2. Implications for acceptance-based interventions and prevention of psychopathology are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of midazolam in rat brain

The authors tested whether perfectionism dimensions interact with specific stress to predict depression over time. A sample of 103 current and former patients completed measures of perfectionism and depression at Time 1 and measures of stress and depression 4 months later. After controlling Time 1 depression, self-oriented perfectionism interacted only with achievement stress to predict Time 2 depression. Socially prescribed perfectionism did not interact with achievement or social stress to predict Time 2 depression, but it did predict Time 2 depression as a main effect. The results provide support for the contention that perfectionism dimensions are involved in vulnerability to depression over time.     

Early family environments and traumatic experiences associated with borderline personality disorder.

Childhood trauma experiences (e.g., sexual abuse, physical abuse, witnessed violence, and early separation experiences) and family environment characteristics were assessed with a questionnaire from a sample of depressed female inpatients; 17 were diagnosed as having borderline personality disorder (BPD), and 19 received no such diagnosis (NBPD). Significantly more BPD individuals than NBPD individuals reported histories of sexual abuse, physical abuse, and witnessed violence. Of these trauma variables, sexual abuse emerged as the only significant predictor of dimensional BPD score, even after physical abuse, subjective depression score, diagnostic differences between groups, and family environment were controlled. Early separation experiences were nonsignificantly different between groups. Although the BPD families were reported to be distinctive for several different family environment characteristics, the control dimension significantly predicted dimensional borderline score even after sexual abuse was controlled. These results suggest that sexual abuse and general family environment need further study for a fuller understanding of BPD symptomatology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived problem-solving ability as a predictor of depression, hopelessness, and suicide ideation in a college population.

A longitudinal design with a mild, naturalistic stressor (poor grade on a midterm exam) tested whether perceived problem-solving ability predicted adjustment in a sample of 303 college students. Participants completed assessments before (Time 1) and after (Time 2) the stressor. Individuals who appraised their problem-solving ability as lower at Time 1 were found to be more vulnerable to the stress of a low grade and experienced higher levels of depression and hopelessness, though not of suicide ideation, at Time 2. These results were obtained independent of pretest scores on these adjustment measures. The results support the model of Perceived Problem-Solving?×?Stress as a predictor of adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is youth victimization related to trauma symptoms and depression after controlling for prior symptoms and family relationships? A longitudinal, prospective study

The common finding linking symptoms such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression with youth victimization (e.g., sexual abuse) might well be artifactual if preexisting psychopathology or disturbed family relationships create a common risk for both later victimization and later symptoms. This study used a longitudinal, prospective design to examine this issue. In a national random sample telephone survey, children 10 to 16 years old were interviewed and then reinterviewed approximately 15 months later about psychological problems, family relationships and victimization experiences that had occurred in the interim. Victimization in the interim was associated with PTSD-related symptoms and depression measured at Time 2, even after controlling for these symptoms and the quality of the parent-child relationship at Time 1. The association was particularly strong for sexual abuse, parental assault, and kidnapping experiences. However, these data also suggest that some of the apparent association found in cross-sectional studies between victimization and psychopathology may be due to prior psychopathology (but not parent-child relationship problems), which puts children at risk for both victimization and later symptoms.     

Coparental and family group-level dynamics during infancy: early family precursors of child and family functioning during preschool

This study examines longitudinal correlates of coparental and family group-level dynamics during infancy. Thirty-seven couples observed at play with their 8-11-month-old infants (15 boys, 22 girls) rated their child's internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and their own coparenting behavior 3 years later. Teachers also rated child behavior at the 3-year follow-up. Several significant relationships emerged between observed family process (high hostility-competitiveness, low family harmony, and high parenting discrepancies in the triad) at Time 1, and subsequent reports of child and coparenting behavior at Time 2. Larger parenting discrepancies at Time 1 predicted greater child anxiety as rated by teachers; greater hostility-competitiveness and lower harmony forecast higher child aggression. Time 1 family process continued to predict Time 2 aggression even after controlling for individual and marital functioning. Several links were also found between distressed family process and later parental reports of negative coparenting behavior. These parental reports of coparenting also explained unique variance in concurrent child behavior ratings. The significance of coparenting as a distinct family construct is discussed.