Individual differences in self-control behaviors and tolerance of painful stimulation.

Studied the relation between Ss' general repertoire of self-control behaviors and their ability to tolerate a cold pressor. In Exp I, with 40 undergraduate Ss, it was found that Ss who were instructed to think of a pleasant event while exposed to a cold pain tolerated that pain longer than a control group, thus replicating previous findings. In Exp II, with 54 undergraduate Ss, one experimental group was required to spend 5 min in self-planning of strategies to cope with the upcoming pain, and a 2nd group was merely informed on the effectiveness of self-control methods in coping with pain. Both groups did not show longer durations than Ss in a control group who were not encouraged to employ their own self-control methods. High self-control (HSC) Ss across the various treatment conditions consistently tolerated the cold pressor longer than low self-control Ss. HSC Ss also reported using self-control methods more often and more effectively while exposed to the cold pressor. The 2 self-control groups did not differ in their ratings of pain intensity. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attention, distraction, and cold-pressor pain.

Compared the effects of distracting oneself from, vs attending to, the sensations produced by cold-pressor stimulation. Exp I (35 undergraduates) revealed that distraction was a better coping strategy than attention to sensations when Ss were asked to report pain threshold and tolerance. Exps II and III (75 Ss) examined the hypothesis that distraction is effective because persons hold a commonsense belief in the benefits of distraction as a coping device. Neither experiment supported the commonsense hypothesis as an explanation for Exp I's results. In Exp IV, 39 male Ss were assigned to either distraction, attention, or no-instruction conditions and asked to report their distress during a 4-min cold-pressor trial. Distraction reduced distress early in the trial, but attention to sensations was a superior strategy for the last 2 min. It is proposed that distraction and attention to sensations may be differentially effective depending on the duration of the painful stimulus. Possible mediating processes underlying the 2 strategies are discussed. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effectiveness of maximally different cognitive strategies and expectancy in attenuation of reported pain.

Ninety-six Ss rated pain during baseline and posttreatment exposures to cold pressor pain. Between trials, Ss in four groups were trained to use one of four cognitive coping strategies involving (a) imaginal reinterpretation, (b) imaginal distraction, (c) nonimaginal reinterpretation, or (d) nonimaginal distraction. Two additional groups were given: (e) an expectation for analgesia but no coping strategy and (f) no treatment. The four coping strategies produced equivalent attenuation of pain ratings and equivalent expectancies for analgesia. Expectancy control Ss expected analgesia, but reported no significant pain reductions. No treatment control Ss neither expected nor achieved any significant pain reductions. Among cognitive strategy groups, the Ss' absorption added significantly to the variance in pain reduction above and beyond the effects of expectancy. Theoretical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instructional demands and ratings of overt and hidden pain during hypnotic analgesia.

16 highly hypnotizable (Carlton University Responsiveness to Suggestion Scale) undergraduates rated the intensity of cold pressor pain during a baseline trial and again during 3 hypnotic analgesia trials. During each analgesia trial, Ss were instructed to give overt reports that reflected consciously experienced pain and covert reports that reflected the intensity of "hidden" pain. Treatment instructions administered before the 1st analgesia trial did not specify the relationship between overt and covert pain. Instructions given before the remaining 2 analgesia trials indicated that hidden pain would be either more or less intense than overt pain. Until they were given explicit information about the relative intensities of the pain, Ss reported no differences in the magnitude of overt and covert pain, contrary to the dissociation hypothesis of hypnotic analgesia. Consistent with social psychological formulations of the hidden observer phenomenon, Ss reported both higher covert than overt pain and lower covert than overt pain, depending on the instructions they were administered. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Audioanalgesia in the control of experimental pain.

Investigated the moderating effects of choice and preference of music on pain perception. 90 students (aged 17–35 yrs) initially rated and ranked 6 musical selections, from most-to-least preferred in a context unrelated to pain testing. In the experiment proper, Ss received 3 trials of finger-pressure pain of which the 1st and 3rd trial involved no-treatment. Following baseline, half of the Ss (Choice condition) were asked to rate and rank the previous 6 musical selections and the remaining Ss were not required to do so (No-Choice). One-third of Ss in each of these groups were assigned either their most-preferred, least-preferred or no music during trial 2. Ss receiving their preferred music reported greater control, expected pain reductions and actual pain reductions compared to groups receiving their least-preferred music or no music. While choice failed to interact with preference, expectancies, coping cognitions and the annoying and relaxing qualities of the music were moderate predictors of reported pain change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Speeded tests of implicit knowledge.

Three experiments tested the hypothesis that implicit and explicit tasks involve distinct modes of processing. Ss observed rule-ordered letter strings and were asked either to memorize the strings or to try to discover the underlying rules. In Exp 1, they then made well-formedness judgments of novel strings under long-deadline and short-deadline conditions. Rule-discovery Ss, but not memory Ss, were impaired by the short deadline. In Exp 2, all Ss made "similarity" judgments of the novel strings instead of the traditional "rule-based" judgments; there were now no differences between the rule-discovery and memory groups. In Exp 3, Ss explicitly instructed in the rules were significantly more impaired under short deadlines than were memory Ss. An analysis of decision times to individual strings for the rule-trained vs memory groups also showed qualitative differences consistent with the implicit–explicit distinction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Control of respiration as a means of controlling responses to threat.

111 undergraduates assessed the degree to which persons' physiological and psychological responses in a threatening situation might be altered by controlling respiration. Ss who (a) had a history of cardiac disease, (b) were taking medication that would influence heart rate, or (c) were engaged in any form of meditation were excluded from the study. After a 30-min rest period, Ss in a respiration-tracing condition began replicating their breathing patterns from the rest period; Ss in an attention-tracing condition participated in a comparable task that did not involve the control of respiration; and Ss in a no-tracing condition were not assigned any task. After the tracing manipulation was introduced, half of the Ss were assigned to a threat condition and informed that they would receive a series of painful electric shocks; the other Ss were assigned to a no-threat condition and informed that they would receive red light stimulation. Analyses of heart-rate and self-report data indicated that (a) the threat manipulation was effective; (b) controlling respiration did not reduce Ss' stress responses; and (c) Ss in the no-tracing condition were the only stressed Ss to show decreases in physiological arousal over time, an effect that may have been due to their use of a cognitive coping strategy. Findings do not provide evidence that control of respiration is an effective strategy for controlling stress but do suggest that, when not interfered with, Ss can employ relatively effective, self-generated cognitive coping strategies. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Confiding in others and illness rate among spouses of suicide and accidental-death victims.

Surveyed 19 spouses (mean age 37.5 yrs) of suicide and accidental death victims (representing a 61.3% response rate of all relevant cases that occurred in 1982 in a metropolitan county) concerning their health and coping strategies approximately 1 yr after their spouse's death. Results show that the more Ss discussed their spouse's death with friends and the less that they ruminated about the death, the fewer were the increases in health problems reported. A significant negative correlation was found between confiding and ruminating. Effects were independent of Ss' self-reported number of close friends. It is suggested that the sudden death of a spouse is associated with increased health problems irrespective of the cause of death, but that confiding appears to play a central role in the coping and health process. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping with job stress and burnout in the human services.

Conducted a mail survey of 141 human service workers (aged 25–65 yrs) to investigate the effects of coping on psychological strain and burnout produced by job stress. The survey assessed job stressors and coping strategies with open-ended questions and measured strain using closed-ended alienation, satisfaction, and symptom scales. Because previous research suggested that individual coping responses do not alleviate strain produced by job stress, the survey elicited information on group coping (social support) and on coping strategies initiated by agencies. Job stress was associated with high levels of strain, and group coping with low levels, but individual responses had little effect. Although Ss identified many strategies that agencies could use to reduce stress and strain, actual use of such strategies was slight. Because men and women worked in the same jobs, no sex differences in individual coping were predicted and none were found; women, however, reported more social support than men. There was no evidence for moderating (interaction) effects of stress and coping on strain. Results suggest that social service agencies should take actions to reduce stress among employees. (57 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Search for a conjunctively defined target can be selectively limited to a color-defined subset of elements.

In conjunction search, response latencies usually increase with the number of displayed elements, suggesting serial, self-terminating search through all elements. In line with the results of H. Egeth, R. Virzi, and H. Garbart (1984), the present study shows that Ss do not necessarily search all display elements, but can limit their search to a color-defined subset of elements. The results make clear that selective search for a color-defined subset does not depend on saliency of the subset (Exp 1), that selective search can be purely color-based and does not depend on luminance (Exp 2), and that Ss can flexibly change which subset they are searching (Exp 3). Exp 4 showed that subset-selective search also occurs without fast absent responses as found in Exps 1–3 and that for selective search no explicit instruction is required. Subset-selective search is a likely strategy in conjunction search. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sham feeding in rats after ventromedial hypothalamic lesions and vagotomy.

Two studies examined sham feeding in female Sprague-Dawley rats with ventromedial hypothalamic (VMH) lesions with or without abdominal vagotomy. In Exp I, intact Ss consumed more than twice as much sweet milk during 1-hr tests of sham feeding as they did when feeding normally. Ss with VMH lesions showed exaggerated sham feeding, which was elevated almost four-fold over their already high normal feeding baseline. In Exp II, vagotomy substantially reduced sham feeding in Ss with VMH lesions. After vagotomy, VMH Ss sham fed half as much as nonvagotomized VMH Ss. Vagotomy did not, however, reduce sham feeding to control levels. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that VMH hyperphagia arise from exaggeration of orosensory responsiveness, which is, in part, a consequence of perturbed vagal function. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnotic amnesia as a strategic enactment: Breaching amnesia in highly susceptible subjects.

Proposes that hypnotically amnesic Ss maintain control over their memory processes but often fail to breach amnesia because to do so would conflict with their self-presentation as deeply hypnotized. Two experiments, with 16 undergraduates, demonstrated that highly susceptible hypnotically amnesic Ss could be easily induced to recall all of the "forgotten" target items by defining successful recall as supportive of rather than as inconsistent with a self-presentation as deeply hypnotized. In the 1st part of Exp I, all Ss showed amnesia despite repeated demands to recall honestly. In the 2nd part of Exp I, Ss were led to believe that they possessed a "hidden part" to their mind that remained aware of the target items covered by the amnesia suggestion. Each S recalled all of the forgotten items when the experimenter contacted their hidden part. Exp II replicated this effect and also demonstrated that the characteristics of Ss' hidden reports were a function of the instructions they received and did not reflect the operation of a dissociated cognitive subsystem that subconsciously held the forgotten items. Findings are inconsistent with traditional theorizing about hypnosis, but offer strong support for the hypothesis that hypnotic amnesia is a strategic enactment under the S's voluntary control. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Paleostriatal lesions in the pigeon (Columba livia) potentiate classical conditioning: Evidence from fixed-interval responding, free operant go–no-go discrimination, and alternation.

Explored the existence of behavioral deficits in the paleostriatum augmentatum in 4 experiments in which pigeons were given bilateral electrolytic lesions. Exp I, conducted with 16 Ss, investigated the effects of lesions on keypecking for reinforcement on a 1-min FI schedule. The lesions increased total response rates, but response timing was not disrupted in paleostriatal Ss. In Exp II, 17 naive Ss were given VI baseline training and, in contrast to the results of Exp I, paleostriatal lesions did not increase responding. Go–no-go discrimination, which followed baseline training, revealed enhanced positive behavioral contrast in paleostriatal Ss, which was explained in terms of additivity theory. The results of Exps I and II suggest that potentiated classical conditioning occurred in paleostriatal Ss. In Exp III, 16 naive Ss were given spatial alternation training, and performance was temporarily impaired following paleostriatal lesions. The same paleostriatal Ss showed superior differentiation performance in Exp IV with a classical go–no-go alternation procedure (which also suggested potentiated classical conditioning). It is argued that disruption of (irrelevant) response-produced information may account for paleostriatal superiority. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Processing nominal information during visual search.

Conducted 3 experiments to examine the processing of nominal information during a visual search. In Exp I, 6 experienced and 2 naive Ss searched for a single pre-specified target letter, and the stimulus exposure-time needed to yield a 50% (corrected for chance) level of accuracy was estimated using the parameter estimation by sequential testing procedure. Results show that the exposure-time was not influenced by the presence (in the irrelevant items) of the target's other case; this suggested that there was no obligatory accessing of nominal information during preattentive processing. In Exp II, 6 experienced Ss searched in Condition 1 for a single target which was specified as being one of a same-name pair of letters, and in Condition 2 for a target specified as one of a same-shape pair of letters. The exposure-time required for the same-name search was greater than that required for the same-shape search. In Exp III, accuracy of search was compared in the same-shape and same-name conditions with a control condition. The target in this control condition was specified as one of a pair of letters not sharing a name or any special shape. 12 Ss searched 6-item displays and 12 Ss searched 12-item displays for a pre-specified target letter. Results confirm the difference detected in Exp II, but they do not show any difference between performance in the same-name condition and in the control condition. It is suggested that some focal processing is required for the development of a sufficiently detailed level of visual representation to allow for naming. (French summary) (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of preparatory information about sensations, threat of pain, and attention on cold pressor distress.

Three experiments with 170 male undergraduates investigated pain experience conceptualized as a combination of stimulus sensations (e.g., aching) and emotional distress. In Exp I, less distress was reported to cold pressor stimulation by Ss first told about stimulus sensations than by Ss who were uninformed or were told about symptoms of bodily arousal (e.g., tension). Adding a pain warning to sensation information blocked distress reduction, presumably by eliciting an emotional interpretation of the stimulus. In Exp II, Ss attending only to hand sensations reported less distress than Ss attending to their bodies. This decrease in the power of the stimulus to provoke emotion is presumably mediated by a schema of hand sensations formed by attention. In Exp III, Ss attending to hand sensations early in the immersion and distracting themselves later reported the same low levels of distress as did Ss who attended to hand sensations throughout. Ss distracted throughout and Ss attending to hand sensations later showed no distress reduction. Therefore, stimulus schematization must precede distress reduction. (64 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of personal values, perceived surveillance, and task labels on task preference: The ideology of turning play into work.

In Exp I, with 34 male and 26 female undergraduates, Ss who endorsed the work ethic spent more free-choice time performing the target activity that had been labeled as work than did Ss who opposed the work ethic. The effect was eliminated or reversed if the activity had been labeled as a leisure pastime. Exp II, with 19 male and 21 female undergraduates, demonstrated that the relation between personal values and task preference was mediated in some Ss by a belief that the experimenter would know what they did, whereas other Ss seemed unaffected by that belief. Implications for intrinsic motivation and for attitude-behavior consistency are discussed. In particular, "turning play into work" by means of explicit labels may increase intrinsic motivation among persons who truly value work. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of group consensus and social support on stimulus meaning: Mediation of conformity by cognitive restructuring.

Three experiments with a total of 163 undergraduates tested the hypothesis that a person reinterprets the meaning of the stimulus object when facing unpopular responses from a unanimous group and that this change in meaning leads to a shift in response toward the group's position. In Exp I, several opinion items were presented, and either Ss observed unpopular responses, supposedly made earlier by a unanimous group (UG) or by a group having 1 dissenter (social support), or they observed no response at all (control). Ss merely gave their interpretation of the meaning of a key word or phrase in each opinion statement—they did not give their own opinions. Results show that UG Ss gave more uncommon meanings to the stimuli than did Ss in the other 2 conditions. Exp II ruled out the possibility that the shift in meaning was due to Ss' adhering to the interpretation they assumed to be held by the majority. In Exp III, Ss were exposed to scores representing the meanings that were produced by the unanimous group and control conditions in Exp I. Results show that after observing the consensually produced meanings for these items, the Ss shifted their own opinions toward the position held by the UG in Exp I. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The hidden observer in hypnotic analgesia: Discovery or experimental creation?

Eight highly susceptible (Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility and the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale) Ss were assigned to E. R. Hilgard and J. R. Hilgard's (1975) training procedures for eliciting "hidden" reports during hypnotic analgesia. These procedures indicate to Ss that a "hidden part" of themselves continues to feel high levels of pain while their "hypnotized part" experiences reduced pain. Eight additional Ss were given the opposite expectation concerning "hidden pain"—that their "hidden part" would feel less pain than their "hypnotized part." Ss expecting high levels of "hidden" pain reported high levels, whereas those expecting little "hidden" pain reported low levels. Results are inconsistent with the notion that "hidden" reports reflect the intrinsic activity of a "dissociated state." Instead, they indicate that "hidden" reports result from Ss' attempts to convincingly enact the role of "good hypnotic S" as this role is defined for them by the experimental procedures they undergo. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Testing a Model of Pain Appraisal and Coping in Children With Chronic Abdominal Pain.

This prospective study of children with recurrent abdominal pain (N=133; ages 8-15 years) used path analysis to examine relations among dispositional pain beliefs and coping styles, cognitions and behavior related to a specific pain episode, and short- and long-term outcomes. Children believing they could not reduce or accept pain appraised their episode-specific coping ability as low and reported passive coping behavior. Dispositional passive coping had direct effects on both episode-specific passive coping and long-term symptoms and disability. Accommodative coping (acceptance and self-encouragement) was associated with reduced episode-specific distress, which itself predicted reduced depressive symptoms 3 months later. Results suggest that coping-skill interventions for children with chronic pain should target reductions in passive coping and consider the potential benefits of accommodative coping strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)